def _select_function(sort, typ):
if typ in ['F', 'D']:
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x/y) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x/y) >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x/y) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x/y) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
elif typ in ['f', 'd']:
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (np.real((x+y*1j)/z) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (np.real((x+y*1j)/z) >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (abs((x+y*1j)/z) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (abs((x+y*1j)/z) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
else: # to avoid an error later
raise ValueError("dtype %s not understood" % typ)
return sfunction
def _select_function(sort, typ):
if typ in ['F', 'D']:
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x / y) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x / y) >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x / y) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x / y) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
elif typ in ['f', 'd']:
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (np.real((x + y * 1j) / z) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (np.real((x + y * 1j) / z) >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (abs((x + y * 1j) / z) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x, y, z: (abs((x + y * 1j) / z) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
else: # to avoid an error later
raise ValueError("dtype %s not understood" % typ)
return sfunction
def set_bandwidth(self, bw_method=None):
"""Compute the estimator bandwidth with given method.
The new bandwidth calculated after a call to `set_bandwidth` is used
for subsequent evaluations of the estimated density.
Parameters
----------
bw_method : str, scalar or callable, optional
The method used to calculate the estimator bandwidth. This can be
'scott', 'silverman', a scalar constant or a callable. If a
scalar, this will be used directly as `kde.factor`. If a callable,
it should take a `gaussian_kde` instance as only parameter and
return a scalar. If None (default), nothing happens; the current
`kde.covariance_factor` method is kept.
Notes
-----
.. versionadded:: 0.11
Examples
--------
>>> x1 = np.array([-7, -5, 1, 4, 5.])
>>> kde = stats.gaussian_kde(x1)
>>> xs = np.linspace(-10, 10, num=50)
>>> y1 = kde(xs)
>>> kde.set_bandwidth(bw_method='silverman')
>>> y2 = kde(xs)
>>> kde.set_bandwidth(bw_method=kde.factor / 3.)
>>> y3 = kde(xs)
>>> fig = plt.figure()
>>> ax = fig.add_subplot(111)
>>> ax.plot(x1, np.ones(x1.shape) / (4. * x1.size), 'bo',
... label='Data points (rescaled)')
>>> ax.plot(xs, y1, label='Scott (default)')
>>> ax.plot(xs, y2, label='Silverman')
>>> ax.plot(xs, y3, label='Const (1/3 * Silverman)')
>>> ax.legend()
>>> plt.show()
"""
if bw_method is None:
pass
elif bw_method == 'scott':
self.covariance_factor = self.scotts_factor
elif bw_method == 'silverman':
self.covariance_factor = self.silverman_factor
elif np.isscalar(bw_method) and not isinstance(bw_method, string_types):
self._bw_method = 'use constant'
self.covariance_factor = lambda: bw_method
elif callable(bw_method):
self._bw_method = bw_method
self.covariance_factor = lambda: self._bw_method(self)
else:
msg = "`bw_method` should be 'scott', 'silverman', a scalar " \
"or a callable."
raise ValueError(msg)
self._compute_covariance()
def set_bandwidth(self, bw_method=None):
"""Compute the estimator bandwidth with given method.
The new bandwidth calculated after a call to `set_bandwidth` is used
for subsequent evaluations of the estimated density.
Parameters
----------
bw_method : str, scalar or callable, optional
The method used to calculate the estimator bandwidth. This can be
'scott', 'silverman', a scalar constant or a callable. If a
scalar, this will be used directly as `kde.factor`. If a callable,
it should take a `gaussian_kde` instance as only parameter and
return a scalar. If None (default), nothing happens; the current
`kde.covariance_factor` method is kept.
Notes
-----
.. versionadded:: 0.11
Examples
--------
>>> import scipy.stats as stats
>>> x1 = np.array([-7, -5, 1, 4, 5.])
>>> kde = stats.gaussian_kde(x1)
>>> xs = np.linspace(-10, 10, num=50)
>>> y1 = kde(xs)
>>> kde.set_bandwidth(bw_method='silverman')
>>> y2 = kde(xs)
>>> kde.set_bandwidth(bw_method=kde.factor / 3.)
>>> y3 = kde(xs)
>>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
>>> fig, ax = plt.subplots()
>>> ax.plot(x1, np.ones(x1.shape) / (4. * x1.size), 'bo',
... label='Data points (rescaled)')
>>> ax.plot(xs, y1, label='Scott (default)')
>>> ax.plot(xs, y2, label='Silverman')
>>> ax.plot(xs, y3, label='Const (1/3 * Silverman)')
>>> ax.legend()
>>> plt.show()
"""
if bw_method is None:
pass
elif bw_method == 'scott':
self.covariance_factor = self.scotts_factor
elif bw_method == 'silverman':
self.covariance_factor = self.silverman_factor
elif np.isscalar(bw_method) and not isinstance(bw_method, string_types):
self._bw_method = 'use constant'
self.covariance_factor = lambda: bw_method
elif callable(bw_method):
self._bw_method = bw_method
self.covariance_factor = lambda: self._bw_method(self)
else:
msg = "`bw_method` should be 'scott', 'silverman', a scalar " \
"or a callable."
raise ValueError(msg)
self._compute_covariance()
def _init_function(self, r):
if isinstance(self.function, str):
self.function = self.function.lower()
_mapped = {
'inverse': 'inverse_multiquadric',
'inverse multiquadric': 'inverse_multiquadric',
'thin-plate': 'thin_plate'
}
if self.function in _mapped:
self.function = _mapped[self.function]
func_name = "_h_" + self.function
if hasattr(self, func_name):
self._function = getattr(self, func_name)
else:
functionlist = [
x[3:] for x in dir(self) if x.startswith('_h_')
]
raise ValueError("function must be a callable or one of " +
", ".join(functionlist))
self._function = getattr(self, "_h_" + self.function)
elif callable(self.function):
allow_one = False
if hasattr(self.function, 'func_code') or \
hasattr(self.function, '__code__'):
val = self.function
allow_one = True
elif hasattr(self.function, "im_func"):
val = get_method_function(self.function)
elif hasattr(self.function, "__call__"):
val = get_method_function(self.function.__call__)
else:
raise ValueError(
"Cannot determine number of arguments to function")
argcount = get_function_code(val).co_argcount
if allow_one and argcount == 1:
self._function = self.function
elif argcount == 2:
if sys.version_info[0] >= 3:
self._function = self.function.__get__(self, Rbf_poly_bias)
else:
import new
self._function = new.instancemethod(
self.function, self, Rbf_poly_bias)
else:
raise ValueError(
"Function argument must take 1 or 2 arguments.")
a0 = self._function(r)
if a0.shape != r.shape:
raise ValueError(
"Callable must take array and return array of the same shape")
return a0
def _init_function(self, r):
if isinstance(self.function, str):
self.function = self.function.lower()
_mapped = {'inverse': 'inverse_multiquadric',
'inverse multiquadric': 'inverse_multiquadric',
'thin-plate': 'thin_plate'}
if self.function in _mapped:
self.function = _mapped[self.function]
func_name = "_h_" + self.function
if hasattr(self, func_name):
self._function = getattr(self, func_name)
else:
functionlist = [x[3:] for x in dir(self)
if x.startswith('_h_')]
raise ValueError("function must be a callable or one of " +
", ".join(functionlist))
self._function = getattr(self, "_h_"+self.function)
elif callable(self.function):
allow_one = False
if hasattr(self.function, 'func_code') or \
hasattr(self.function, '__code__'):
val = self.function
allow_one = True
elif hasattr(self.function, "im_func"):
val = get_method_function(self.function)
elif hasattr(self.function, "__call__"):
val = get_method_function(self.function.__call__)
else:
raise ValueError("Cannot determine number of arguments to "
"function")
argcount = get_function_code(val).co_argcount
if allow_one and argcount == 1:
self._function = self.function
elif argcount == 2:
if sys.version_info[0] >= 3:
self._function = self.function.__get__(self, Rbf)
else:
import new
self._function = new.instancemethod(self.function, self,
Rbf)
else:
raise ValueError("Function argument must take 1 or 2 "
"arguments.")
a0 = self._function(r)
if a0.shape != r.shape:
raise ValueError("Callable must take array and return array of "
"the same shape")
return a0
def _select_function(sort):
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x/y) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x/y) > 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x/y) < 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x/y) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
return sfunction
def _select_function(sort):
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x / y) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (np.real(x / y) > 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x / y) < 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x, y: (abs(x / y) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
return sfunction
def _select_function(sort):
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = _lhp
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = _rhp
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = _iuc
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = _ouc
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
return sfunction
def _select_function(sort):
if callable(sort):
# assume the user knows what they're doing
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = _lhp
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = _rhp
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = _iuc
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = _ouc
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or "
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
return sfunction
def set_bandwidth(self, bw_method=None):
"""Compute the estimator bandwidth with given method.
The new bandwidth calculated after a call to `set_bandwidth` is used
for subsequent evaluations of the estimated density.
Parameters
----------
bw_method : str, scalar or callable, optional
The method used to calculate the estimator bandwidth. This can be
'scott', 'silverman', a scalar constant or a callable. If a
scalar, this will be used directly as `kde.factor`. If a callable,
it should take a `gaussian_kde` instance as only parameter and
return a scalar. If None (default), nothing happens; the current
`kde.covariance_factor` method is kept.
"""
if bw_method is None:
pass
elif bw_method == 'scott':
self.covariance_factor = self.scotts_factor
elif bw_method == 'silverman':
self.covariance_factor = self.silverman_factor
elif np.isscalar(bw_method) and not isinstance(bw_method,
string_types):
self._bw_method = 'use constant'
self.covariance_factor = lambda: bw_method
elif callable(bw_method):
self._bw_method = bw_method
self.covariance_factor = lambda: self._bw_method(self)
else:
msg = "`bw_method` should be 'scott', 'silverman', a scalar " \
"or a callable."
raise ValueError(msg)
self._compute_covariance()
def root_scalar(f,
args=(),
method=None,
bracket=None,
fprime=None,
fprime2=None,
x0=None,
x1=None,
xtol=None,
rtol=None,
maxiter=None,
options=None):
"""
Find a root of a scalar function.
Parameters
----------
f : callable
A function to find a root of.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its derivative(s).
method : str, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'bisect' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-bisect>`
- 'brentq' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-brentq>`
- 'brenth' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-brenth>`
- 'ridder' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-ridder>`
- 'toms748' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-toms748>`
- 'newton' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-newton>`
- 'secant' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-secant>`
- 'halley' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-halley>`
bracket: A sequence of 2 floats, optional
An interval bracketing a root. `f(x, *args)` must have different
signs at the two endpoints.
x0 : float, optional
Initial guess.
x1 : float, optional
A second guess.
fprime : bool or callable, optional
If `fprime` is a boolean and is True, `f` is assumed to return the
value of derivative along with the objective function.
`fprime` can also be a callable returning the derivative of `f`. In
this case, it must accept the same arguments as `f`.
fprime2 : bool or callable, optional
If `fprime2` is a boolean and is True, `f` is assumed to return the
value of 1st and 2nd derivatives along with the objective function.
`fprime2` can also be a callable returning the 2nd derivative of `f`.
In this case, it must accept the same arguments as `f`.
xtol : float, optional
Tolerance (absolute) for termination.
rtol : float, optional
Tolerance (relative) for termination.
maxiter : int, optional
Maximum number of iterations.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. E.g. ``k``, see
:obj:`show_options()` for details.
Returns
-------
sol : RootResults
The solution represented as a ``RootResults`` object.
Important attributes are: ``root`` the solution , ``converged`` a
boolean flag indicating if the algorithm exited successfully and
``flag`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`RootResults` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
root : Find a root of a vector function.
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter.
The default is to use the best method available for the situation
presented.
If a bracket is provided, it may use one of the bracketing methods.
If a derivative and an initial value are specified, it may
select one of the derivative-based methods.
If no method is judged applicable, it will raise an Exception.
Examples
--------
Find the root of a simple cubic
>>> from scipy import optimize
>>> def f(x):
... return (x**3 - 1) # only one real root at x = 1
>>> def fprime(x):
... return 3*x**2
The `brentq` method takes as input a bracket
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f, bracket=[0, 3], method='brentq')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 10, 11)
The `newton` method takes as input a single point and uses the derivative(s)
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f, x0=0.2, fprime=fprime, method='newton')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 11, 22)
The function can provide the value and derivative(s) in a single call.
>>> def f_p_pp(x):
... return (x**3 - 1), 3*x**2, 6*x
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f_p_pp, x0=0.2, fprime=True, method='newton')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 11, 11)
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f_p_pp, x0=0.2, fprime=True, fprime2=True, method='halley')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 7, 8)
"""
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args, )
if options is None:
options = {}
# fun also returns the derivative(s)
is_memoized = False
if fprime2 is not None and not callable(fprime2):
if bool(fprime2):
f = MemoizeDer(f)
is_memoized = True
fprime2 = f.fprime2
fprime = f.fprime
else:
fprime2 = None
if fprime is not None and not callable(fprime):
if bool(fprime):
f = MemoizeDer(f)
is_memoized = True
fprime = f.fprime
else:
fprime = None
# respect solver-specific default tolerances - only pass in if actually set
kwargs = {}
for k in ['xtol', 'rtol', 'maxiter']:
v = locals().get(k)
if v is not None:
kwargs[k] = v
# Set any solver-specific options
if options:
kwargs.update(options)
# Always request full_output from the underlying method as _root_scalar
# always returns a RootResults object
kwargs.update(full_output=True, disp=False)
# Pick a method if not specified.
# Use the "best" method available for the situation.
if not method:
if bracket:
method = 'brentq'
elif x0 is not None:
if fprime:
if fprime2:
method = 'halley'
else:
method = 'newton'
else:
method = 'secant'
if not method:
raise ValueError('Unable to select a solver as neither bracket '
'nor starting point provided.')
meth = method.lower()
map2underlying = {'halley': 'newton', 'secant': 'newton'}
try:
methodc = getattr(optzeros, map2underlying.get(meth, meth))
except AttributeError:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % meth)
if meth in ['bisect', 'ridder', 'brentq', 'brenth', 'toms748']:
if not isinstance(bracket, (list, tuple, np.ndarray)):
raise ValueError('Bracket needed for %s' % method)
a, b = bracket[:2]
r, sol = methodc(f, a, b, args=args, **kwargs)
elif meth in ['secant']:
if x0 is None:
raise ValueError('x0 must not be None for %s' % method)
if x1 is None:
raise ValueError('x1 must not be None for %s' % method)
if 'xtol' in kwargs:
kwargs['tol'] = kwargs.pop('xtol')
r, sol = methodc(f,
x0,
args=args,
fprime=None,
fprime2=None,
x1=x1,
**kwargs)
elif meth in ['newton']:
if x0 is None:
raise ValueError('x0 must not be None for %s' % method)
if not fprime:
raise ValueError('fprime must be specified for %s' % method)
if 'xtol' in kwargs:
kwargs['tol'] = kwargs.pop('xtol')
r, sol = methodc(f,
x0,
args=args,
fprime=fprime,
fprime2=None,
**kwargs)
elif meth in ['halley']:
if x0 is None:
raise ValueError('x0 must not be None for %s' % method)
if not fprime:
raise ValueError('fprime must be specified for %s' % method)
if not fprime2:
raise ValueError('fprime2 must be specified for %s' % method)
if 'xtol' in kwargs:
kwargs['tol'] = kwargs.pop('xtol')
r, sol = methodc(f,
x0,
args=args,
fprime=fprime,
fprime2=fprime2,
**kwargs)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
if is_memoized:
# Replace the function_calls count with the memoized count.
# Avoids double and triple-counting.
n_calls = f.n_calls
sol.function_calls = n_calls
return sol
def cdist(XA, XB, metric='euclidean', *args, **kwargs):
"""
"""
kwargs = _args_to_kwargs_xdist(args, kwargs, metric, "cdist")
XA = np.asarray(XA, order='c')
XB = np.asarray(XB, order='c')
# The C code doesn't do striding.
XA = _copy_array_if_base_present(XA)
XB = _copy_array_if_base_present(XB)
s = XA.shape
sB = XB.shape
if len(s) != 2:
raise ValueError('XA must be a 2-dimensional array.')
if len(sB) != 2:
raise ValueError('XB must be a 2-dimensional array.')
if s[1] != sB[1]:
raise ValueError('XA and XB must have the same number of columns '
'(i.e. feature dimension.)')
mA = s[0]
mB = sB[0]
n = s[1]
out = kwargs.pop("out", None)
if out is None:
dm = np.empty((mA, mB), dtype=np.double)
else:
if out.shape != (mA, mB):
raise ValueError("Output array has incorrect shape.")
if not out.flags.c_contiguous:
raise ValueError("Output array must be C-contiguous.")
if out.dtype != np.double:
raise ValueError("Output array must be double type.")
dm = out
# compute blacklist for deprecated kwargs
if(metric in _METRICS['minkowski'].aka or
metric in _METRICS['wminkowski'].aka or
metric in ['test_minkowski'] or
metric in [minkowski]):
kwargs_blacklist = ["V", "VI"]
elif(metric in _METRICS['seuclidean'].aka or
metric == 'test_seuclidean' or metric == seuclidean):
kwargs_blacklist = ["p", "w", "VI"]
elif(metric in _METRICS['mahalanobis'].aka or
metric == 'test_mahalanobis' or metric == mahalanobis):
kwargs_blacklist = ["p", "w", "V"]
else:
kwargs_blacklist = ["p", "V", "VI"]
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(kwargs, kwargs_blacklist)
if callable(metric):
mstr = getattr(metric, '__name__', 'Unknown')
metric_name = _METRIC_ALIAS.get(mstr, None)
XA, XB, typ, kwargs = _validate_cdist_input(XA, XB, mA, mB, n,
metric_name, **kwargs)
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = metric(XA[i], XB[j], **kwargs)
elif isinstance(metric, string_types):
mstr = metric.lower()
# NOTE: C-version still does not support weights
if "w" in kwargs and not mstr.startswith("test_"):
if(mstr in _METRICS['seuclidean'].aka or
mstr in _METRICS['mahalanobis'].aka):
raise ValueError("metric %s incompatible with weights" % mstr)
# need to use python version for weighting
kwargs['out'] = out
mstr = "test_%s" % mstr
metric_name = _METRIC_ALIAS.get(mstr, None)
if metric_name is not None:
XA, XB, typ, kwargs = _validate_cdist_input(XA, XB, mA, mB, n,
metric_name, **kwargs)
# get cdist wrapper
cdist_fn = getattr(_distance_wrap,
"cdist_%s_%s_wrap" % (metric_name, typ))
cdist_fn(XA, XB, dm, **kwargs)
return dm
elif mstr.startswith("test_"):
if mstr in _TEST_METRICS:
dm = cdist(XA, XB, _TEST_METRICS[mstr], **kwargs)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown "Test" Distance Metric: %s' % mstr[5:])
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown Distance Metric: %s' % mstr)
else:
raise TypeError('2nd argument metric must be a string identifier '
'or a function.')
return dm
def cdist(XA,
XB,
metric='euclidean',
p=None,
V=None,
VI=None,
w=None,
out=None):
"""
Computes distance between each pair of the two collections of inputs.
See Notes for common calling conventions.
Parameters
----------
XA : ndarray
An :math:`m_A` by :math:`n` array of :math:`m_A`
original observations in an :math:`n`-dimensional space.
Inputs are converted to float type.
XB : ndarray
An :math:`m_B` by :math:`n` array of :math:`m_B`
original observations in an :math:`n`-dimensional space.
Inputs are converted to float type.
metric : str or callable, optional
The distance metric to use. If a string, the distance function can be
'braycurtis', 'canberra', 'chebyshev', 'cityblock', 'correlation',
'cosine', 'dice', 'euclidean', 'hamming', 'jaccard', 'kulsinski',
'mahalanobis', 'matching', 'minkowski', 'rogerstanimoto', 'russellrao',
'seuclidean', 'sokalmichener', 'sokalsneath', 'sqeuclidean',
'wminkowski', 'yule'.
p : double, optional
The p-norm to apply
Only for Minkowski, weighted and unweighted. Default: 2.
w : ndarray, optional
The weight vector.
Only for weighted Minkowski. Mandatory
V : ndarray, optional
The variance vector
Only for standardized Euclidean. Default: var(vstack([XA, XB]), axis=0, ddof=1)
VI : ndarray, optional
The inverse of the covariance matrix
Only for Mahalanobis. Default: inv(cov(vstack([XA, XB]).T)).T
out : ndarray, optional
If not None, the distance matrix Y is stored in this array
Returns
-------
Y : ndarray
A :math:`m_A` by :math:`m_B` distance matrix is returned.
For each :math:`i` and :math:`j`, the metric
``dist(u=XA[i], v=XB[j])`` is computed and stored in the
:math:`ij` th entry.
Raises
------
ValueError
An exception is thrown if `XA` and `XB` do not have
the same number of columns.
Notes
-----
The following are common calling conventions:
1. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'euclidean')``
Computes the distance between :math:`m` points using
Euclidean distance (2-norm) as the distance metric between the
points. The points are arranged as :math:`m`
:math:`n`-dimensional row vectors in the matrix X.
2. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'minkowski', p)``
Computes the distances using the Minkowski distance
:math:`||u-v||_p` (:math:`p`-norm) where :math:`p \\geq 1`.
3. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'cityblock')``
Computes the city block or Manhattan distance between the
points.
4. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'seuclidean', V=None)``
Computes the standardized Euclidean distance. The standardized
Euclidean distance between two n-vectors ``u`` and ``v`` is
.. math::
\\sqrt{\\sum {(u_i-v_i)^2 / V[x_i]}}.
V is the variance vector; V[i] is the variance computed over all
the i'th components of the points. If not passed, it is
automatically computed.
5. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'sqeuclidean')``
Computes the squared Euclidean distance :math:`||u-v||_2^2` between
the vectors.
6. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'cosine')``
Computes the cosine distance between vectors u and v,
.. math::
1 - \\frac{u \\cdot v}
{{||u||}_2 {||v||}_2}
where :math:`||*||_2` is the 2-norm of its argument ``*``, and
:math:`u \\cdot v` is the dot product of :math:`u` and :math:`v`.
7. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'correlation')``
Computes the correlation distance between vectors u and v. This is
.. math::
1 - \\frac{(u - \\bar{u}) \\cdot (v - \\bar{v})}
{{||(u - \\bar{u})||}_2 {||(v - \\bar{v})||}_2}
where :math:`\\bar{v}` is the mean of the elements of vector v,
and :math:`x \\cdot y` is the dot product of :math:`x` and :math:`y`.
8. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'hamming')``
Computes the normalized Hamming distance, or the proportion of
those vector elements between two n-vectors ``u`` and ``v``
which disagree. To save memory, the matrix ``X`` can be of type
boolean.
9. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'jaccard')``
Computes the Jaccard distance between the points. Given two
vectors, ``u`` and ``v``, the Jaccard distance is the
proportion of those elements ``u[i]`` and ``v[i]`` that
disagree where at least one of them is non-zero.
10. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'chebyshev')``
Computes the Chebyshev distance between the points. The
Chebyshev distance between two n-vectors ``u`` and ``v`` is the
maximum norm-1 distance between their respective elements. More
precisely, the distance is given by
.. math::
d(u,v) = \\max_i {|u_i-v_i|}.
11. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'canberra')``
Computes the Canberra distance between the points. The
Canberra distance between two points ``u`` and ``v`` is
.. math::
d(u,v) = \\sum_i \\frac{|u_i-v_i|}
{|u_i|+|v_i|}.
12. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'braycurtis')``
Computes the Bray-Curtis distance between the points. The
Bray-Curtis distance between two points ``u`` and ``v`` is
.. math::
d(u,v) = \\frac{\\sum_i (|u_i-v_i|)}
{\\sum_i (|u_i+v_i|)}
13. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'mahalanobis', VI=None)``
Computes the Mahalanobis distance between the points. The
Mahalanobis distance between two points ``u`` and ``v`` is
:math:`\\sqrt{(u-v)(1/V)(u-v)^T}` where :math:`(1/V)` (the ``VI``
variable) is the inverse covariance. If ``VI`` is not None,
``VI`` will be used as the inverse covariance matrix.
14. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'yule')``
Computes the Yule distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `yule` function documentation)
15. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'matching')``
Synonym for 'hamming'.
16. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'dice')``
Computes the Dice distance between the boolean vectors. (see
`dice` function documentation)
17. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'kulsinski')``
Computes the Kulsinski distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `kulsinski` function documentation)
18. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'rogerstanimoto')``
Computes the Rogers-Tanimoto distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `rogerstanimoto` function documentation)
19. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'russellrao')``
Computes the Russell-Rao distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `russellrao` function documentation)
20. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'sokalmichener')``
Computes the Sokal-Michener distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `sokalmichener` function documentation)
21. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'sokalsneath')``
Computes the Sokal-Sneath distance between the vectors. (see
`sokalsneath` function documentation)
22. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'wminkowski')``
Computes the weighted Minkowski distance between the
vectors. (see `wminkowski` function documentation)
23. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, f)``
Computes the distance between all pairs of vectors in X
using the user supplied 2-arity function f. For example,
Euclidean distance between the vectors could be computed
as follows::
dm = cdist(XA, XB, lambda u, v: np.sqrt(((u-v)**2).sum()))
Note that you should avoid passing a reference to one of
the distance functions defined in this library. For example,::
dm = cdist(XA, XB, sokalsneath)
would calculate the pair-wise distances between the vectors in
X using the Python function `sokalsneath`. This would result in
sokalsneath being called :math:`{n \\choose 2}` times, which
is inefficient. Instead, the optimized C version is more
efficient, and we call it using the following syntax::
dm = cdist(XA, XB, 'sokalsneath')
Examples
--------
Find the Euclidean distances between four 2-D coordinates:
>>> from scipy.spatial import distance
>>> coords = [(35.0456, -85.2672),
... (35.1174, -89.9711),
... (35.9728, -83.9422),
... (36.1667, -86.7833)]
>>> distance.cdist(coords, coords, 'euclidean')
array([[ 0. , 4.7044, 1.6172, 1.8856],
[ 4.7044, 0. , 6.0893, 3.3561],
[ 1.6172, 6.0893, 0. , 2.8477],
[ 1.8856, 3.3561, 2.8477, 0. ]])
Find the Manhattan distance from a 3-D point to the corners of the unit
cube:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 0, 0],
... [0, 0, 1],
... [0, 1, 0],
... [0, 1, 1],
... [1, 0, 0],
... [1, 0, 1],
... [1, 1, 0],
... [1, 1, 1]])
>>> b = np.array([[ 0.1, 0.2, 0.4]])
>>> distance.cdist(a, b, 'cityblock')
array([[ 0.7],
[ 0.9],
[ 1.3],
[ 1.5],
[ 1.5],
[ 1.7],
[ 2.1],
[ 2.3]])
"""
# You can also call this as:
# Y = cdist(XA, XB, 'test_abc')
# where 'abc' is the metric being tested. This computes the distance
# between all pairs of vectors in XA and XB using the distance metric 'abc'
# but with a more succinct, verifiable, but less efficient implementation.
# Store input arguments to check whether we can modify later.
input_XA, input_XB = XA, XB
XA = np.asarray(XA, order='c')
XB = np.asarray(XB, order='c')
# The C code doesn't do striding.
XA = _copy_array_if_base_present(XA)
XB = _copy_array_if_base_present(XB)
s = XA.shape
sB = XB.shape
if len(s) != 2:
raise ValueError('XA must be a 2-dimensional array.')
if len(sB) != 2:
raise ValueError('XB must be a 2-dimensional array.')
if s[1] != sB[1]:
raise ValueError('XA and XB must have the same number of columns '
'(i.e. feature dimension.)')
mA = s[0]
mB = sB[0]
n = s[1]
if out is None:
dm = np.zeros((mA, mB), dtype=np.double)
else:
if out.shape != (mA, mB):
raise ValueError("Output array has wrong dimension.")
if not out.flags.c_contiguous:
raise ValueError("Output array must be C-contiguous.")
if out.dtype != np.double:
raise ValueError("Output array must be double type.")
dm = out
# validate input for multi-args metrics
if (metric in ['minkowski', 'mi', 'm', 'pnorm', 'test_minkowski']
or metric == minkowski):
p = _validate_minkowski_args(p)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(w=w, V=V, VI=VI)
elif (metric in ['wminkowski', 'wmi', 'wm', 'wpnorm', 'test_wminkowski']
or metric == wminkowski):
p, w = _validate_wminkowski_args(p, w)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(V=V, VI=VI)
elif (metric in ['seuclidean', 'se', 's', 'test_seuclidean']
or metric == seuclidean):
V = _validate_seuclidean_args(np.vstack([XA, XB]), n, V)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p, w=w, VI=VI)
elif (metric in ['mahalanobis', 'mahal', 'mah', 'test_mahalanobis']
or metric == mahalanobis):
VI = _validate_mahalanobis_args(np.vstack([XA, XB]), mA + mB, n, VI)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p, w=w, V=V)
else:
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p, w=w, V=V, VI=VI)
if callable(metric):
# metrics that expects only doubles:
if metric in [
braycurtis, canberra, chebyshev, cityblock, correlation,
cosine, euclidean, mahalanobis, minkowski, sqeuclidean,
seuclidean, wminkowski
]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
# metrics that expects only bools:
elif metric in [
dice, kulsinski, rogerstanimoto, russellrao, sokalmichener,
sokalsneath, yule
]:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
# metrics that may receive multiple types:
elif metric in [matching, hamming, jaccard]:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
# metrics that expects multiple args
if metric == minkowski:
metric = partial(minkowski, p=p)
elif metric == wminkowski:
metric = partial(wminkowski, p=p, w=w)
elif metric == seuclidean:
metric = partial(seuclidean, V=V)
elif metric == mahalanobis:
metric = partial(mahalanobis, VI=VI)
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = metric(XA[i, :], XB[j, :])
elif isinstance(metric, string_types):
mstr = metric.lower()
try:
validate, cdist_fn = _SIMPLE_CDIST[mstr]
XA = validate(XA)
XB = validate(XB)
cdist_fn(XA, XB, dm)
return dm
except KeyError:
pass
if mstr in ['matching', 'hamming', 'hamm', 'ha', 'h']:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_hamming_bool_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_hamming_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['jaccard', 'jacc', 'ja', 'j']:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_jaccard_bool_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_jaccard_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['minkowski', 'mi', 'm', 'pnorm']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_minkowski_wrap(XA, XB, dm, p=p)
elif mstr in ['wminkowski', 'wmi', 'wm', 'wpnorm']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_weighted_minkowski_wrap(XA, XB, dm, p=p, w=w)
elif mstr in ['seuclidean', 'se', 's']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_seuclidean_wrap(XA, XB, dm, V=V)
elif mstr in ['cosine', 'cos']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_cosine_cdist(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['correlation', 'co']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
XA = XA.copy() if XA is input_XA else XA
XB = XB.copy() if XB is input_XB else XB
XA -= XA.mean(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
XB -= XB.mean(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
_cosine_cdist(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['mahalanobis', 'mahal', 'mah']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
# sqrt((u-v)V^(-1)(u-v)^T)
_distance_wrap.cdist_mahalanobis_wrap(XA, XB, dm, VI=VI)
elif mstr.startswith("test_"):
if mstr in _TEST_METRICS:
kwargs = {"p": p, "w": w, "V": V, "VI": VI}
dm = cdist(XA, XB, _TEST_METRICS[mstr], **kwargs)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown "Test" Distance Metric: %s' %
mstr[5:])
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown Distance Metric: %s' % mstr)
else:
raise TypeError('2nd argument metric must be a string identifier '
'or a function.')
return dm
def asjacobian(J):
"""
Convert given object to one suitable for use as a Jacobian.
"""
spsolve = scipy.sparse.linalg.spsolve
if isinstance(J, Jacobian):
return J
elif inspect.isclass(J) and issubclass(J, Jacobian):
return J()
elif isinstance(J, np.ndarray):
if J.ndim > 2:
raise ValueError('array must have rank <= 2')
J = np.atleast_2d(np.asarray(J))
if J.shape[0] != J.shape[1]:
raise ValueError('array must be square')
return Jacobian(matvec=lambda v: dot(J, v),
rmatvec=lambda v: dot(J.conj().T, v),
solve=lambda v: solve(J, v),
rsolve=lambda v: solve(J.conj().T, v),
dtype=J.dtype,
shape=J.shape)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(J):
if J.shape[0] != J.shape[1]:
raise ValueError('matrix must be square')
return Jacobian(matvec=lambda v: J * v,
rmatvec=lambda v: J.conj().T * v,
solve=lambda v: spsolve(J, v),
rsolve=lambda v: spsolve(J.conj().T, v),
dtype=J.dtype,
shape=J.shape)
elif hasattr(J, 'shape') and hasattr(J, 'dtype') and hasattr(J, 'solve'):
return Jacobian(matvec=getattr(J, 'matvec'),
rmatvec=getattr(J, 'rmatvec'),
solve=J.solve,
rsolve=getattr(J, 'rsolve'),
update=getattr(J, 'update'),
setup=getattr(J, 'setup'),
dtype=J.dtype,
shape=J.shape)
elif callable(J):
# Assume it's a function J(x) that returns the Jacobian
class Jac(Jacobian):
def update(self, x, F):
self.x = x
def solve(self, v, tol=0):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return solve(m, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return spsolve(m, v)
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
def matvec(self, v):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return dot(m, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return m * v
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
def rsolve(self, v, tol=0):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return solve(m.conj().T, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return spsolve(m.conj().T, v)
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
def rmatvec(self, v):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return dot(m.conj().T, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return m.conj().T * v
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
return Jac()
elif isinstance(J, str):
return dict(broyden1=BroydenFirst,
broyden2=BroydenSecond,
anderson=Anderson,
diagbroyden=DiagBroyden,
linearmixing=LinearMixing,
excitingmixing=ExcitingMixing,
krylov=KrylovJacobian)[J]()
else:
raise TypeError('Cannot convert object to a Jacobian')
def minimize(fun, x0, args=(), method=None, jac=None, hess=None,
hessp=None, bounds=None, constraints=(), tol=None,
callback=None, options=None):
"""Minimization of scalar function of one or more variables.
Parameters
----------
fun : callable
The objective function to be minimized.
``fun(x, *args) -> float``
where x is an 1-D array with shape (n,) and `args`
is a tuple of the fixed parameters needed to completely
specify the function.
x0 : ndarray, shape (n,)
Initial guess. Array of real elements of size (n,),
where 'n' is the number of independent variables.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its
derivatives (`fun`, `jac` and `hess` functions).
method : str or callable, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'Nelder-Mead' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-neldermead>`
- 'Powell' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-powell>`
- 'CG' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-cg>`
- 'BFGS' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-bfgs>`
- 'Newton-CG' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-newtoncg>`
- 'L-BFGS-B' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-lbfgsb>`
- 'TNC' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-tnc>`
- 'COBYLA' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-cobyla>`
- 'SLSQP' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-slsqp>`
- 'trust-constr':ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustconstr>`
- 'dogleg' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-dogleg>`
- 'trust-ncg' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustncg>`
- 'trust-exact' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustexact>`
- 'trust-krylov' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustkrylov>`
- custom - a callable object (added in version 0.14.0),
see below for description.
If not given, chosen to be one of ``BFGS``, ``L-BFGS-B``, ``SLSQP``,
depending if the problem has constraints or bounds.
jac : {callable, '2-point', '3-point', 'cs', bool}, optional
Method for computing the gradient vector. Only for CG, BFGS,
Newton-CG, L-BFGS-B, TNC, SLSQP, dogleg, trust-ncg, trust-krylov,
trust-exact and trust-constr. If it is a callable, it should be a
function that returns the gradient vector:
``jac(x, *args) -> array_like, shape (n,)``
where x is an array with shape (n,) and `args` is a tuple with
the fixed parameters. Alternatively, the keywords
{'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} select a finite
difference scheme for numerical estimation of the gradient. Options
'3-point' and 'cs' are available only to 'trust-constr'.
If `jac` is a Boolean and is True, `fun` is assumed to return the
gradient along with the objective function. If False, the gradient
will be estimated using '2-point' finite difference estimation.
hess : {callable, '2-point', '3-point', 'cs', HessianUpdateStrategy}, optional
Method for computing the Hessian matrix. Only for Newton-CG, dogleg,
trust-ncg, trust-krylov, trust-exact and trust-constr. If it is
callable, it should return the Hessian matrix:
``hess(x, *args) -> {LinearOperator, spmatrix, array}, (n, n)``
where x is a (n,) ndarray and `args` is a tuple with the fixed
parameters. LinearOperator and sparse matrix returns are
allowed only for 'trust-constr' method. Alternatively, the keywords
{'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} select a finite difference scheme
for numerical estimation. Or, objects implementing
`HessianUpdateStrategy` interface can be used to approximate
the Hessian. Available quasi-Newton methods implementing
this interface are:
- `BFGS`;
- `SR1`.
Whenever the gradient is estimated via finite-differences,
the Hessian cannot be estimated with options
{'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} and needs to be
estimated using one of the quasi-Newton strategies.
Finite-difference options {'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} and
`HessianUpdateStrategy` are available only for 'trust-constr' method.
hessp : callable, optional
Hessian of objective function times an arbitrary vector p. Only for
Newton-CG, trust-ncg, trust-krylov, trust-constr.
Only one of `hessp` or `hess` needs to be given. If `hess` is
provided, then `hessp` will be ignored. `hessp` must compute the
Hessian times an arbitrary vector:
``hessp(x, p, *args) -> ndarray shape (n,)``
where x is a (n,) ndarray, p is an arbitrary vector with
dimension (n,) and `args` is a tuple with the fixed
parameters.
bounds : sequence or `Bounds`, optional
Bounds on variables for L-BFGS-B, TNC, SLSQP and
trust-constr methods. There are two ways to specify the bounds:
1. Instance of `Bounds` class.
2. Sequence of ``(min, max)`` pairs for each element in `x`. None
is used to specify no bound.
constraints : {Constraint, dict} or List of {Constraint, dict}, optional
Constraints definition (only for COBYLA, SLSQP and trust-constr).
Constraints for 'trust-constr' are defined as a single object or a
list of objects specifying constraints to the optimization problem.
Available constraints are:
- `LinearConstraint`
- `NonlinearConstraint`
Constraints for COBYLA, SLSQP are defined as a list of dictionaries.
Each dictionary with fields:
type : str
Constraint type: 'eq' for equality, 'ineq' for inequality.
fun : callable
The function defining the constraint.
jac : callable, optional
The Jacobian of `fun` (only for SLSQP).
args : sequence, optional
Extra arguments to be passed to the function and Jacobian.
Equality constraint means that the constraint function result is to
be zero whereas inequality means that it is to be non-negative.
Note that COBYLA only supports inequality constraints.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance for termination. For detailed control, use solver-specific
options.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. All methods accept the following
generic options:
maxiter : int
Maximum number of iterations to perform.
disp : bool
Set to True to print convergence messages.
For method-specific options, see :func:`show_options()`.
callback : callable, optional
Called after each iteration. For 'trust-constr' it is a callable with
the signature:
``callback(xk, OptimizeResult state) -> bool``
where ``xk`` is the current parameter vector. and ``state``
is an `OptimizeResult` object, with the same fields
as the ones from the return. If callback returns True
the algorithm execution is terminated.
For all the other methods, the signature is:
``callback(xk)``
where ``xk`` is the current parameter vector.
Returns
-------
res : OptimizeResult
The optimization result represented as a ``OptimizeResult`` object.
Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
Boolean flag indicating if the optimizer exited successfully and
``message`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
minimize_scalar : Interface to minimization algorithms for scalar
univariate functions
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter. The default method is *BFGS*.
**Unconstrained minimization**
Method :ref:`Nelder-Mead <optimize.minimize-neldermead>` uses the
Simplex algorithm [1]_, [2]_. This algorithm is robust in many
applications. However, if numerical computation of derivative can be
trusted, other algorithms using the first and/or second derivatives
information might be preferred for their better performance in
general.
Method :ref:`Powell <optimize.minimize-powell>` is a modification
of Powell's method [3]_, [4]_ which is a conjugate direction
method. It performs sequential one-dimensional minimizations along
each vector of the directions set (`direc` field in `options` and
`info`), which is updated at each iteration of the main
minimization loop. The function need not be differentiable, and no
derivatives are taken.
Method :ref:`CG <optimize.minimize-cg>` uses a nonlinear conjugate
gradient algorithm by Polak and Ribiere, a variant of the
Fletcher-Reeves method described in [5]_ pp. 120-122. Only the
first derivatives are used.
Method :ref:`BFGS <optimize.minimize-bfgs>` uses the quasi-Newton
method of Broyden, Fletcher, Goldfarb, and Shanno (BFGS) [5]_
pp. 136. It uses the first derivatives only. BFGS has proven good
performance even for non-smooth optimizations. This method also
returns an approximation of the Hessian inverse, stored as
`hess_inv` in the OptimizeResult object.
Method :ref:`Newton-CG <optimize.minimize-newtoncg>` uses a
Newton-CG algorithm [5]_ pp. 168 (also known as the truncated
Newton method). It uses a CG method to the compute the search
direction. See also *TNC* method for a box-constrained
minimization with a similar algorithm. Suitable for large-scale
problems.
Method :ref:`dogleg <optimize.minimize-dogleg>` uses the dog-leg
trust-region algorithm [5]_ for unconstrained minimization. This
algorithm requires the gradient and Hessian; furthermore the
Hessian is required to be positive definite.
Method :ref:`trust-ncg <optimize.minimize-trustncg>` uses the
Newton conjugate gradient trust-region algorithm [5]_ for
unconstrained minimization. This algorithm requires the gradient
and either the Hessian or a function that computes the product of
the Hessian with a given vector. Suitable for large-scale problems.
Method :ref:`trust-krylov <optimize.minimize-trustkrylov>` uses
the Newton GLTR trust-region algorithm [14]_, [15]_ for unconstrained
minimization. This algorithm requires the gradient
and either the Hessian or a function that computes the product of
the Hessian with a given vector. Suitable for large-scale problems.
On indefinite problems it requires usually less iterations than the
`trust-ncg` method and is recommended for medium and large-scale problems.
Method :ref:`trust-exact <optimize.minimize-trustexact>`
is a trust-region method for unconstrained minimization in which
quadratic subproblems are solved almost exactly [13]_. This
algorithm requires the gradient and the Hessian (which is
*not* required to be positive definite). It is, in many
situations, the Newton method to converge in fewer iteraction
and the most recommended for small and medium-size problems.
**Bound-Constrained minimization**
Method :ref:`L-BFGS-B <optimize.minimize-lbfgsb>` uses the L-BFGS-B
algorithm [6]_, [7]_ for bound constrained minimization.
Method :ref:`TNC <optimize.minimize-tnc>` uses a truncated Newton
algorithm [5]_, [8]_ to minimize a function with variables subject
to bounds. This algorithm uses gradient information; it is also
called Newton Conjugate-Gradient. It differs from the *Newton-CG*
method described above as it wraps a C implementation and allows
each variable to be given upper and lower bounds.
**Constrained Minimization**
Method :ref:`COBYLA <optimize.minimize-cobyla>` uses the
Constrained Optimization BY Linear Approximation (COBYLA) method
[9]_, [10]_, [11]_. The algorithm is based on linear
approximations to the objective function and each constraint. The
method wraps a FORTRAN implementation of the algorithm. The
constraints functions 'fun' may return either a single number
or an array or list of numbers.
Method :ref:`SLSQP <optimize.minimize-slsqp>` uses Sequential
Least SQuares Programming to minimize a function of several
variables with any combination of bounds, equality and inequality
constraints. The method wraps the SLSQP Optimization subroutine
originally implemented by Dieter Kraft [12]_. Note that the
wrapper handles infinite values in bounds by converting them into
large floating values.
Method :ref:`trust-constr <optimize.minimize-trustconstr>` is a
trust-region algorithm for constrained optimization. It swiches
between two implementations depending on the problem definition.
It is the most versatile constrained minimization algorithm
implemented in SciPy and the most appropriate for large-scale problems.
For equality constrained problems it is an implementation of Byrd-Omojokun
Trust-Region SQP method described in [17]_ and in [5]_, p. 549. When
inequality constraints are imposed as well, it swiches to the trust-region
interior point method described in [16]_. This interior point algorithm,
in turn, solves inequality constraints by introducing slack variables
and solving a sequence of equality-constrained barrier problems
for progressively smaller values of the barrier parameter.
The previously described equality constrained SQP method is
used to solve the subproblems with increasing levels of accuracy
as the iterate gets closer to a solution.
**Finite-Difference Options**
For Method :ref:`trust-constr <optimize.minimize-trustconstr>`
the gradient and the Hessian may be approximated using
three finite-difference schemes: {'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'}.
The scheme 'cs' is, potentially, the most accurate but it
requires the function to correctly handles complex inputs and to
be differentiable in the complex plane. The scheme '3-point' is more
accurate than '2-point' but requires twice as much operations.
**Custom minimizers**
It may be useful to pass a custom minimization method, for example
when using a frontend to this method such as `scipy.optimize.basinhopping`
or a different library. You can simply pass a callable as the ``method``
parameter.
The callable is called as ``method(fun, x0, args, **kwargs, **options)``
where ``kwargs`` corresponds to any other parameters passed to `minimize`
(such as `callback`, `hess`, etc.), except the `options` dict, which has
its contents also passed as `method` parameters pair by pair. Also, if
`jac` has been passed as a bool type, `jac` and `fun` are mangled so that
`fun` returns just the function values and `jac` is converted to a function
returning the Jacobian. The method shall return an `OptimizeResult`
object.
The provided `method` callable must be able to accept (and possibly ignore)
arbitrary parameters; the set of parameters accepted by `minimize` may
expand in future versions and then these parameters will be passed to
the method. You can find an example in the scipy.optimize tutorial.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
References
----------
.. [1] Nelder, J A, and R Mead. 1965. A Simplex Method for Function
Minimization. The Computer Journal 7: 308-13.
.. [2] Wright M H. 1996. Direct search methods: Once scorned, now
respectable, in Numerical Analysis 1995: Proceedings of the 1995
Dundee Biennial Conference in Numerical Analysis (Eds. D F
Griffiths and G A Watson). Addison Wesley Longman, Harlow, UK.
191-208.
.. [3] Powell, M J D. 1964. An efficient method for finding the minimum of
a function of several variables without calculating derivatives. The
Computer Journal 7: 155-162.
.. [4] Press W, S A Teukolsky, W T Vetterling and B P Flannery.
Numerical Recipes (any edition), Cambridge University Press.
.. [5] Nocedal, J, and S J Wright. 2006. Numerical Optimization.
Springer New York.
.. [6] Byrd, R H and P Lu and J. Nocedal. 1995. A Limited Memory
Algorithm for Bound Constrained Optimization. SIAM Journal on
Scientific and Statistical Computing 16 (5): 1190-1208.
.. [7] Zhu, C and R H Byrd and J Nocedal. 1997. L-BFGS-B: Algorithm
778: L-BFGS-B, FORTRAN routines for large scale bound constrained
optimization. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software 23 (4):
550-560.
.. [8] Nash, S G. Newton-Type Minimization Via the Lanczos Method.
1984. SIAM Journal of Numerical Analysis 21: 770-778.
.. [9] Powell, M J D. A direct search optimization method that models
the objective and constraint functions by linear interpolation.
1994. Advances in Optimization and Numerical Analysis, eds. S. Gomez
and J-P Hennart, Kluwer Academic (Dordrecht), 51-67.
.. [10] Powell M J D. Direct search algorithms for optimization
calculations. 1998. Acta Numerica 7: 287-336.
.. [11] Powell M J D. A view of algorithms for optimization without
derivatives. 2007.Cambridge University Technical Report DAMTP
2007/NA03
.. [12] Kraft, D. A software package for sequential quadratic
programming. 1988. Tech. Rep. DFVLR-FB 88-28, DLR German Aerospace
Center -- Institute for Flight Mechanics, Koln, Germany.
.. [13] Conn, A. R., Gould, N. I., and Toint, P. L.
Trust region methods. 2000. Siam. pp. 169-200.
.. [14] F. Lenders, C. Kirches, A. Potschka: "trlib: A vector-free
implementation of the GLTR method for iterative solution of
the trust region problem", https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.04718
.. [15] N. Gould, S. Lucidi, M. Roma, P. Toint: "Solving the
Trust-Region Subproblem using the Lanczos Method",
SIAM J. Optim., 9(2), 504--525, (1999).
.. [16] Byrd, Richard H., Mary E. Hribar, and Jorge Nocedal. 1999.
An interior point algorithm for large-scale nonlinear programming.
SIAM Journal on Optimization 9.4: 877-900.
.. [17] Lalee, Marucha, Jorge Nocedal, and Todd Plantega. 1998. On the
implementation of an algorithm for large-scale equality constrained
optimization. SIAM Journal on Optimization 8.3: 682-706.
Examples
--------
Let us consider the problem of minimizing the Rosenbrock function. This
function (and its respective derivatives) is implemented in `rosen`
(resp. `rosen_der`, `rosen_hess`) in the `scipy.optimize`.
>>> from scipy.optimize import minimize, rosen, rosen_der
A simple application of the *Nelder-Mead* method is:
>>> x0 = [1.3, 0.7, 0.8, 1.9, 1.2]
>>> res = minimize(rosen, x0, method='Nelder-Mead', tol=1e-6)
>>> res.x
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
Now using the *BFGS* algorithm, using the first derivative and a few
options:
>>> res = minimize(rosen, x0, method='BFGS', jac=rosen_der,
... options={'gtol': 1e-6, 'disp': True})
Optimization terminated successfully.
Current function value: 0.000000
Iterations: 26
Function evaluations: 31
Gradient evaluations: 31
>>> res.x
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> print(res.message)
Optimization terminated successfully.
>>> res.hess_inv
array([[ 0.00749589, 0.01255155, 0.02396251, 0.04750988, 0.09495377], # may vary
[ 0.01255155, 0.02510441, 0.04794055, 0.09502834, 0.18996269],
[ 0.02396251, 0.04794055, 0.09631614, 0.19092151, 0.38165151],
[ 0.04750988, 0.09502834, 0.19092151, 0.38341252, 0.7664427 ],
[ 0.09495377, 0.18996269, 0.38165151, 0.7664427, 1.53713523]])
Next, consider a minimization problem with several constraints (namely
Example 16.4 from [5]_). The objective function is:
>>> fun = lambda x: (x[0] - 1)**2 + (x[1] - 2.5)**2
There are three constraints defined as:
>>> cons = ({'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: x[0] - 2 * x[1] + 2},
... {'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: -x[0] - 2 * x[1] + 6},
... {'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: -x[0] + 2 * x[1] + 2})
And variables must be positive, hence the following bounds:
>>> bnds = ((0, None), (0, None))
The optimization problem is solved using the SLSQP method as:
>>> res = minimize(fun, (2, 0), method='SLSQP', bounds=bnds,
... constraints=cons)
It should converge to the theoretical solution (1.4 ,1.7).
"""
x0 = np.asarray(x0)
if x0.dtype.kind in np.typecodes["AllInteger"]:
x0 = np.asarray(x0, dtype=float)
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args,)
if method is None:
# Select automatically
if constraints:
method = 'SLSQP'
elif bounds is not None:
method = 'L-BFGS-B'
else:
method = 'BFGS'
if callable(method):
meth = "_custom"
else:
meth = method.lower()
if options is None:
options = {}
# check if optional parameters are supported by the selected method
# - jac
if meth in ('nelder-mead', 'powell', 'cobyla') and bool(jac):
warn('Method %s does not use gradient information (jac).' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - hess
if meth not in ('newton-cg', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg', 'trust-constr',
'trust-krylov', 'trust-exact', '_custom') and hess is not None:
warn('Method %s does not use Hessian information (hess).' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - hessp
if meth not in ('newton-cg', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg', 'trust-constr',
'trust-krylov', '_custom') \
and hessp is not None:
warn('Method %s does not use Hessian-vector product '
'information (hessp).' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - constraints or bounds
if (meth in ('nelder-mead', 'powell', 'cg', 'bfgs', 'newton-cg', 'dogleg',
'trust-ncg') and (bounds is not None or np.any(constraints))):
warn('Method %s cannot handle constraints nor bounds.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
if meth in ('l-bfgs-b', 'tnc') and np.any(constraints):
warn('Method %s cannot handle constraints.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
if meth == 'cobyla' and bounds is not None:
warn('Method %s cannot handle bounds.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - callback
if (meth in ('cobyla',) and callback is not None):
warn('Method %s does not support callback.' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - return_all
if (meth in ('l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'cobyla', 'slsqp') and
options.get('return_all', False)):
warn('Method %s does not support the return_all option.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# check gradient vector
if meth == 'trust-constr':
if type(jac) is bool:
if jac:
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = '2-point'
elif jac is None:
jac = '2-point'
elif not callable(jac) and jac not in ('2-point', '3-point', 'cs'):
raise ValueError("Unsupported jac definition.")
else:
if jac in ('2-point', '3-point', 'cs'):
if jac in ('3-point', 'cs'):
warn("Only 'trust-constr' method accept %s "
"options for 'jac'. Using '2-point' instead." % jac)
jac = None
elif not callable(jac):
if bool(jac):
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = None
# set default tolerances
if tol is not None:
options = dict(options)
if meth == 'nelder-mead':
options.setdefault('xatol', tol)
options.setdefault('fatol', tol)
if meth in ('newton-cg', 'powell', 'tnc'):
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
if meth in ('powell', 'l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'slsqp'):
options.setdefault('ftol', tol)
if meth in ('bfgs', 'cg', 'l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'dogleg',
'trust-ncg', 'trust-exact', 'trust-krylov'):
options.setdefault('gtol', tol)
if meth in ('cobyla', '_custom'):
options.setdefault('tol', tol)
if meth == 'trust-constr':
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
options.setdefault('gtol', tol)
options.setdefault('barrier_tol', tol)
if bounds is not None:
bounds = standardize_bounds(bounds, x0, meth)
if constraints is not None:
constraints = standardize_constraints(constraints, x0, meth)
if meth == '_custom':
return method(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac, hess=hess, hessp=hessp,
bounds=bounds, constraints=constraints,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'nelder-mead':
return _minimize_neldermead(fun, x0, args, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'powell':
return _minimize_powell(fun, x0, args, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'cg':
return _minimize_cg(fun, x0, args, jac, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'bfgs':
return _minimize_bfgs(fun, x0, args, jac, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'newton-cg':
return _minimize_newtoncg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp, callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'l-bfgs-b':
return _minimize_lbfgsb(fun, x0, args, jac, bounds,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'tnc':
return _minimize_tnc(fun, x0, args, jac, bounds, callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'cobyla':
return _minimize_cobyla(fun, x0, args, constraints, **options)
elif meth == 'slsqp':
return _minimize_slsqp(fun, x0, args, jac, bounds,
constraints, callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'trust-constr':
return _minimize_trustregion_constr(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp,
bounds, constraints,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'dogleg':
return _minimize_dogleg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'trust-ncg':
return _minimize_trust_ncg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'trust-krylov':
return _minimize_trust_krylov(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'trust-exact':
return _minimize_trustregion_exact(fun, x0, args, jac, hess,
callback=callback, **options)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
def ssdist(XA,
XB,
indicesB,
indptr,
indicesA=None,
metric="euclidean",
p=None,
V=None,
VI=None,
w=None,
gap_open=None,
gap_ext=None,
mat=None,
normalized=None,
out=None):
"""
Computes sparse submatrix of distances between within/between collections
of observations
See Notes for common calling conventions.
Parameters
----------
XA : ndarray
An :math:`m_A` by :math:`n` array of :math:`m_A`
original observations in an :math:`n`-dimensional space.
Inputs are converted to float type.
XB : ndarray
An :math:`m_B` by :math:`n` array of :math:`m_B`
original observations in an :math:`n`-dimensional space.
Inputs are converted to float type.
indices: ndarray
An array of index pointers to rows in XB
indptr: ndarray
An array of length :math:`m_A + 1`
metric : str or callable, optional
The distance metric to use. If a string, the distance function can be
"braycurtis", "canberra", "chebyshev", "cityblock", "correlation",
"cosine", "dice", "euclidean", "hamming", "jaccard", "kulsinski",
"mahalanobis", "matching", "minkowski", "rogerstanimoto", "russellrao",
"seuclidean", "sokalmichener", "sokalsneath", "sqeuclidean",
"wminkowski", "yule".
p : double, optional
The p-norm to apply
Only for Minkowski, weighted and unweighted. Default: 2.
w : ndarray, optional
The weight vector.
Only for weighted Minkowski. Mandatory
V : ndarray, optional
The variance vector
Only for standardized Euclidean. Default: var(vstack([XA, XB]), axis=0, ddof=1)
VI : ndarray, optional
The inverse of the covariance matrix
Only for Mahalanobis. Default: inv(cov(vstack([XA, XB]).T)).T
Returns
-------
Y : sparse matrix
Sparse submatrix of distance matrix in csr format.
Raises
------
ValueError
An exception is thrown if `XA` and `XB` do not have
the same number of columns.
Notes
-----
The following are common calling conventions:
1. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "euclidean")``
Computes the distance between points using Euclidean distance (2-norm) as the distance metric between the
points.
2. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, "minkowski", p)``
Computes the distances using the Minkowski distance
:math:`||u-v||_p` (:math:`p`-norm) where :math:`p \\geq 1`.
3. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, "cityblock")``
Computes the city block or Manhattan distance between the
points.
4. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, "seuclidean", V=None)``
Computes the standardized Euclidean The standardized
Euclidean distance between two n-vectors ``u`` and ``v`` is
.. math::
\\sqrt{\\sum {(u_i-v_i)^2 / V[x_i]}}.
V is the variance vector; V[i] is the variance computed over all
the i"th components of the points. If not passed, it is
automatically computed.
5. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, "sqeuclidean")``
Computes the squared Euclidean distance :math:`||u-v||_2^2` between
the vectors.
6. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, "cosine")``
Computes the cosine distance between vectors u and v,
.. math::
1 - \\frac{u \\cdot v}
{{||u||}_2 {||v||}_2}
where :math:`||*||_2` is the 2-norm of its argument ``*``, and
:math:`u \\cdot v` is the dot product of :math:`u` and :math:`v`.
7. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, indptr, "correlation")``
Computes the correlation distance between vectors u and v. This is
.. math::
1 - \\frac{(u - \\bar{u}) \\cdot (v - \\bar{v})}
{{||(u - \\bar{u})||}_2 {||(v - \\bar{v})||}_2}
where :math:`\\bar{v}` is the mean of the elements of vector v,
and :math:`x \\cdot y` is the dot product of :math:`x` and :math:`y`.
8. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, indptr, "hamming")``
Computes the normalized Hamming distance, or the proportion of
those vector elements between two n-vectors ``u`` and ``v``
which disagree. To save memory, the matrix ``X`` can be of type
boolean.
9. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "jaccard")``
Computes the Jaccard distance between the points. Given two
vectors, ``u`` and ``v``, the Jaccard distance is the
proportion of those elements ``u[i]`` and ``v[i]`` that
disagree where at least one of them is non-zero.
10. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "chebyshev")``
Computes the Chebyshev distance between the points. The
Chebyshev distance between two n-vectors ``u`` and ``v`` is the
maximum norm-1 distance between their respective elements. More
precisely, the distance is given by
.. math::
d(u,v) = \\max_i {|u_i-v_i|}.
11. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "canberra")``
Computes the Canberra distance between the points. The
Canberra distance between two points ``u`` and ``v`` is
.. math::
d(u,v) = \\sum_i \\frac{|u_i-v_i|}
{|u_i|+|v_i|}.
12. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "braycurtis")``
Computes the Bray-Curtis distance between the points. The
Bray-Curtis distance between two points ``u`` and ``v`` is
.. math::
d(u,v) = \\frac{\\sum_i (|u_i-v_i|)}
{\\sum_i (|u_i+v_i|)}
13. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "mahalanobis", VI=None)``
Computes the Mahalanobis distance between the points. The
Mahalanobis distance between two points ``u`` and ``v`` is
:math:`\\sqrt{(u-v)(1/V)(u-v)^T}` where :math:`(1/V)` (the ``VI``
variable) is the inverse covariance. If ``VI`` is not None,
``VI`` will be used as the inverse covariance matrix.
14. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "yule")``
Computes the Yule distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `yule` function documentation)
15. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "matching")``
Synonym for "hamming".
16. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "dice")``
Computes the Dice distance between the boolean vectors. (see
`dice` function documentation)
17. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "kulsinski")``
Computes the Kulsinski distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `kulsinski` function documentation)
18. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "rogerstanimoto")``
Computes the Rogers-Tanimoto distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `rogerstanimoto` function documentation)
19. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "russellrao")``
Computes the Russell-Rao distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `russellrao` function documentation)
20. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "sokalmichener")``
Computes the Sokal-Michener distance between the boolean
vectors. (see `sokalmichener` function documentation)
21. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "sokalsneath")``
Computes the Sokal-Sneath distance between the vectors. (see
`sokalsneath` function documentation)
22. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "wminkowski")``
Computes the weighted Minkowski distance between the
vectors. (see `wminkowski` function documentation)
22. ``Y = cdist(..., "edit")``
Computes the edit distance between the strings.
(see `edit` function documentation)
22. ``Y = ssdist(..., "blosum")``
Computes a positive alignment distance between the strings
based on the blosum62 matrix.(see `blosum` function documentation)
22. ``Y = ssdist(..., "pam250")``
Computes a positive alignment distance between the strings
based on the pam250 matrix. (see `pam250` function documentation)
22. ``Y = ssdist(..., "align")``
Computes a positive alignment distance between the strings
using a user specified align matrix. (see `align` function documentation)
23. ``Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, f)``
Computes the distance between all pairs of vectors in X
using the user supplied 2-arity function f. For example,
Euclidean distance between the vectors could be computed
as follows::
dm = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, lambda u, v: np.sqrt(((u-v)**2).sum()))
Note that you should avoid passing a reference to one of
the distance functions defined in this library. For example,::
dm = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, sokalsneath)
would calculate the pair-wise distances between the vectors in
X using the Python function `sokalsneath`. This would result in
sokalsneath being called :math:`{n \\choose 2}` times, which
is inefficient. Instead, the optimized C version is more
efficient, and we call it using the following syntax::
dm = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "sokalsneath")
Examples
--------
Find the Euclidean distances between four 2-D coordinates:
>>> from scipy.spatial import distance
>>> coords = [(35.0456, -85.2672),
... (35.1174, -89.9711),
... (35.9728, -83.9422),
... (36.1667, -86.7833)]
>>> cdist(coords, coords, "euclidean")
array([[ 0. , 4.7044, 1.6172, 1.8856],
[ 4.7044, 0. , 6.0893, 3.3561],
[ 1.6172, 6.0893, 0. , 2.8477],
[ 1.8856, 3.3561, 2.8477, 0. ]])
Find the Manhattan distance from a 3-D point to the corners of the unit
cube:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 0, 0],
... [0, 0, 1],
... [0, 1, 0],
... [0, 1, 1],
... [1, 0, 0],
... [1, 0, 1],
... [1, 1, 0],
... [1, 1, 1]])
>>> b = np.array([[ 0.1, 0.2, 0.4]])
>>> cdist(a, b, "cityblock")
array([[ 0.7],
[ 0.9],
[ 1.3],
[ 1.5],
[ 1.5],
[ 1.7],
[ 2.1],
[ 2.3]])
"""
# You can also call this as:
# Y = cdist(XA, XB, indptr, "test_abc")
# where "abc" is the metric being tested. This computes the distance
# between all pairs of vectors in XA and XB using the distance metric "abc"
# but with a more succinct, verifiable, but less efficient implementation.
# Store input arguments to check whether we can modify later.
input_XA, input_XB = XA, XB
input_indicesB = indicesB
if indicesA is None:
indicesA = np.arange(XA.shape[0])
if not isinstance(XA, np.ndarray):
XA = np.asarray(XA, order="C")
if not isinstance(XB, np.ndarray):
XB = np.asarray(XB, order="C")
if not isinstance(indicesB, np.ndarray):
indicesB = np.asarray(indicesB)
if not isinstance(indicesA, np.ndarray):
indicesA = np.asarray(indicesA)
if not isinstance(indptr, np.ndarray):
indptr = np.asarray(indptr)
# The C code doesn"t do striding.
XA, indicesA = _subset_array_if_base_present(XA, indicesA)
XB, indicesB = _subset_array_if_base_present(XB, indicesB)
sA = XA.shape
sB = XB.shape
sindptr = indptr.shape
if XA.dtype != np.str:
if len(sA) != 2:
raise ValueError("XA must be a 2-dimensional array.")
if len(sB) != 2:
raise ValueError("XB must be a 2-dimensional array.")
if sA[1] != sB[1]:
raise ValueError("XA and XB must have the same number of columns "
"(i.e. feature dimension.)")
if len(sindptr) != 1:
raise ValueError("Index pointers must be a 1-dimensional array.")
if (indptr[-1] != indicesB.shape[0]
or sindptr[0] != indicesA.shape[0] + 1):
raise ValueError("Index pointer array has incorrect/incompatible "
"shape.")
else:
if len(sindptr) != 1:
raise ValueError("Index pointers must be a 1-dimensional array.")
if sindptr[0] != indicesA.shape[0] or indptr[-1] != indicesB.shape[0]:
raise ValueError("Index pointer array has incorrect/incompatible "
"shape.")
mA = indicesA.shape[0]
mB = indicesB.shape[0]
n = sA[1]
if out is None:
dm = np.zeros(mB, dtype=np.double)
else:
if not out.flags.contiguous:
raise ValueError("Output array must be contiguous")
if out.shape != (mB, ):
raise ValueError("Output array has incorrect shape")
if out.dtype != np.double:
raise ValueError("Output array must have double dtype")
dm = out
# validate input for multi-args metrics
if (metric in ["minkowski", "mi", "m", "pnorm", "test_minkowski"]
or metric == minkowski):
p = _validate_minkowski_args(p)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(w=w,
V=V,
VI=VI,
gap_open=gap_open,
gap_ext=gap_ext,
mat=mat,
normalized=normalized)
elif (metric in ["wminkowski", "wmi", "wm", "wpnorm", "test_wminkowski"]
or metric == wminkowski):
p, w = _validate_wminkowski_args(p, w)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(V=V,
VI=VI,
gap_open=gap_open,
gap_ext=gap_ext,
mat=mat,
normalized=normalized)
elif (metric in ["seuclidean", "se", "s", "test_seuclidean"]
or metric == seuclidean):
V = _validate_seuclidean_args(np.vstack([XA, XB]), n, V)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p,
w=w,
VI=VI,
gap_open=gap_open,
gap_ext=gap_ext,
mat=mat,
normalized=normalized)
elif (metric in ["mahalanobis", "mahal", "mah", "test_mahalanobis"]
or metric == mahalanobis):
VI = _validate_mahalanobis_args(np.vstack([XA, XB]), mA + mB, n, VI)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p,
w=w,
V=V,
gap_open=gap_open,
gap_ext=gap_ext,
mat=mat,
normalized=normalized)
elif (metric
in ["edit", "levenshtein", "blosum", "pam", "blosum62", "pam250"]
or metric in [levenshtein, blosum62, pam250]):
gap_open, gap_ext = _validate_alignment_args(gap_open, gap_ext,
normalized)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p, V=V, w=w, VI=VI, mat=mat)
matrix_dtype = None
elif (metric in ["align", "alignment"] or metric == alignment):
gap_open, gap_ext = _validate_alignment_args(gap_open, gap_ext,
normalized)
mat, matrix_dtype = _validate_score_matrix(mat)
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p, V=V, w=w, VI=VI)
else:
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(p=p,
w=w,
V=V,
VI=VI,
gap_open=gap_open,
gap_ext=gap_ext,
mat=mat,
normalized=normalized)
if callable(metric):
# metrics that expects only doubles:
if metric in [
braycurtis, canberra, chebyshev, cityblock, correlation,
cosine, euclidean, mahalanobis, minkowski, sqeuclidean,
seuclidean, wminkowski
]:
XA, indicesA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB, indicesB = _convert_to_double(XB)
# metrics that expects only bools:
elif metric in [
dice, kulsinski, rogerstanimoto, russellrao, sokalmichener,
sokalsneath, yule
]:
XA, indicesA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB, indicesB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
# metrics that may receive multiple types:
elif metric in [matching, hamming, jaccard]:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA, indicesA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB, indicesB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
else:
XA, indicesA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB, indicesB = _convert_to_double(XB)
# metrics that expects multiple args
if metric == minkowski:
metric = partial(minkowski, p=p)
elif metric == wminkowski:
metric = partial(wminkowski, p=p, w=w)
elif metric == seuclidean:
metric = partial(seuclidean, V=V)
elif metric == mahalanobis:
metric = partial(mahalanobis, VI=VI)
for i in range(indicesA.shape[0]):
ii = indicesA[i]
for j in range(indptr[i], indptr[i + 1]):
dm[j] = metric(XA[ii, :], XB[indicesB[j], :])
elif isinstance(metric, string_types):
mstr = metric.lower()
try:
validate, ssdist_fn = _SIMPLE_ssdist[mstr]
XA, indicesA = validate(XA, indicesA)
XB, indicesB = validate(XB, indicesB)
ssdist_fn(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB, indptr, dm)
indices = input_indicesB - np.min(input_indicesB)
return csr_matrix((dm, indices, indptr), copy=False)
except KeyError:
pass
if mstr in ["matching", "hamming", "hamm", "ha", "h"]:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA, indicesA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB, indicesB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_hamming_bool_wrap(XA, XB, indicesA,
indicesB, indptr, dm)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_hamming_wrap(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB,
indptr, dm)
elif mstr in ["jaccard", "jacc", "ja", "j"]:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_jaccard_bool_wrap(XA, XB, indicesA,
indicesB, indptr, dm)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_jaccard_wrap(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB,
indptr, dm)
elif mstr in ["minkowski", "mi", "m", "pnorm"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_minkowski_wrap(XA,
XB,
indicesA,
indicesB,
indptr,
dm,
p=p)
elif mstr in ["wminkowski", "wmi", "wm", "wpnorm"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_weighted_minkowski_wrap(XA,
XB,
indicesA,
indicesB,
indptr,
dm,
p=p,
w=w)
elif mstr in ["seuclidean", "se", "s"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_seuclidean_wrap(XA,
XB,
indicesA,
indicesB,
indptr,
dm,
V=V)
elif mstr in ["cosine", "cos"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_cosine(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB, indptr, dm)
elif mstr in ["correlation", "co"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
XA, indicesA = _subset_array_if_is_parent(input_XA, XA, indicesA)
XB, indicesB = _subset_array_if_is_parent(input_XB, XB, indicesB)
XA -= XA.mean(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
XB -= XB.mean(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
_ssdist_cosine(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB, indptr, dm)
elif mstr in ["aitchison", "simplex", "clr"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
XA, indicesA = _subset_array_if_is_parent(input_XA, XA, indicesA)
XB, indicesB = _subset_array_if_is_parent(input_XB, XB, indicesB)
# check positive
if not (XA >= 0).all():
raise ValueError("All values in XA must be greater than or "
"equal to zero.")
if not (XB >= 0).all():
raise ValueError("All values in XB must be greater than or "
"equal to zero.")
# check normalized
sumA = XA.sum(axis=-1)
sumB = XA.sum(axis=-1)
if not np.allclose(sumA, 1.):
XA /= sumA[:, np.newaxis]
if not np.allclose(sumB, 1.):
XB /= sumB[:, np.newaxis]
XA = np.log(XA, out=XA)
XB = np.log(XB, out=XB)
XA -= XA.mean(axis=-1)[:, np.newaxis]
XB -= XB.mean(axis=-1)[:, np.newaxis]
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_euclidean(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB, indptr,
dm)
elif mstr in ["mahalanobis", "mahal", "mah"]:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_ssdist_wrap.ssdist_mahalanobis_wrap(XA,
XB,
indicesA,
indicesB,
indptr,
dm,
VI=VI)
elif mstr in _string_names:
XA = _convert_to_str(XA)
XB = _convert_to_str(XB)
_validate_string_dtypes(XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB)
key = (mstr, normalized, "o" if XA.dtype == np.object_ else "s")
if matrix_dtype is not None:
key += ({int: "l", float: "d"}[matrix_dtype], )
_ssdist_fn = _STRING_ssdist[key]
args = (XA, XB, indicesA, indicesB, indptr, dm)
kwargs = [gap_open, gap_ext, mat]
args += tuple(kwarg for kwarg in kwargs if kwarg is not None)
_ssdist_fn(*args)
elif mstr.startswith("test_"):
if mstr in _TEST_METRICS:
kwargs = {"p": p, "w": w, "V": V, "VI": VI}
dm = ssdist(XA, XB, indicesB, indicesA, _TEST_METRICS[mstr],
**kwargs)
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown \"Test\" Distance Metric: %s" %
mstr[5:])
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown Distance Metric: %s" % mstr)
else:
raise TypeError("2nd argument metric must be a string identifier "
"or a function.")
indices = input_indicesB - np.min(input_indicesB)
return csr_matrix((dm, indices, indptr), copy=False)
def resample(x, num, t=None, axis=0, window=None):
"""
Resample `x` to `num` samples using Fourier method along the given axis.
The resampled signal starts at the same value as `x` but is sampled
with a spacing of ``len(x) / num * (spacing of x)``. Because a
Fourier method is used, the signal is assumed to be periodic.
Parameters
----------
x : array_like
The data to be resampled.
num : int
The number of samples in the resampled signal.
t : array_like, optional
If `t` is given, it is assumed to be the sample positions
associated with the signal data in `x`.
axis : int, optional
The axis of `x` that is resampled. Default is 0.
window : array_like, callable, string, float, or tuple, optional
Specifies the window applied to the signal in the Fourier
domain. See below for details.
Returns
-------
resampled_x or (resampled_x, resampled_t)
Either the resampled array, or, if `t` was given, a tuple
containing the resampled array and the corresponding resampled
positions.
Notes
-----
The argument `window` controls a Fourier-domain window that tapers
the Fourier spectrum before zero-padding to alleviate ringing in
the resampled values for sampled signals you didn't intend to be
interpreted as band-limited.
If `window` is a function, then it is called with a vector of inputs
indicating the frequency bins (i.e. fftfreq(x.shape[axis]) ).
If `window` is an array of the same length as `x.shape[axis]` it is
assumed to be the window to be applied directly in the Fourier
domain (with dc and low-frequency first).
For any other type of `window`, the function `scipy.signal.get_window`
is called to generate the window.
The first sample of the returned vector is the same as the first
sample of the input vector. The spacing between samples is changed
from ``dx`` to ``dx * len(x) / num``.
If `t` is not None, then it represents the old sample positions,
and the new sample positions will be returned as well as the new
samples.
As noted, `resample` uses FFT transformations, which can be very
slow if the number of input samples is large and prime, see
`scipy.fftpack.fft`.
"""
x = np.asarray(x)
X = fft(x, axis=axis)
Nx = x.shape[axis]
if window is not None:
if callable(window):
W = window(fftfreq(Nx))
elif isinstance(window, np.ndarray):
if window.shape != (Nx,):
raise ValueError('window must have the same length as data')
W = window
else:
W = ifftshift(get_window(window, Nx))
newshape = [1] * x.ndim
newshape[axis] = len(W)
W.shape = newshape
X = X * W
sl = [slice(None)] * len(x.shape)
newshape = list(x.shape)
newshape[axis] = num
N = int(np.minimum(num, Nx))
Y = np.zeros(newshape, 'D')
sl[axis] = slice(0, (N + 1) // 2)
Y[sl] = X[sl]
sl[axis] = slice(-(N - 1) // 2, None)
Y[sl] = X[sl]
y = ifft(Y, axis=axis) * (float(num) / float(Nx))
if x.dtype.char not in ['F', 'D']:
y = y.real
if t is None:
return y
else:
new_t = np.arange(0, num) * (t[1] - t[0]) * Nx / float(num) + t[0]
return y, new_t
def root(fun, x0, args=(), method='hybr', jac=None, tol=None, callback=None,
options=None):
"""
Find a root of a vector function.
Parameters
----------
fun : callable
A vector function to find a root of.
x0 : ndarray
Initial guess.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its Jacobian.
method : str, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'hybr' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-hybr>`
- 'lm' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-lm>`
- 'broyden1' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-broyden1>`
- 'broyden2' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-broyden2>`
- 'anderson' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-anderson>`
- 'linearmixing' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-linearmixing>`
- 'diagbroyden' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-diagbroyden>`
- 'excitingmixing' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-excitingmixing>`
- 'krylov' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-krylov>`
- 'df-sane' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-dfsane>`
jac : bool or callable, optional
If `jac` is a Boolean and is True, `fun` is assumed to return the
value of Jacobian along with the objective function. If False, the
Jacobian will be estimated numerically.
`jac` can also be a callable returning the Jacobian of `fun`. In
this case, it must accept the same arguments as `fun`.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance for termination. For detailed control, use solver-specific
options.
callback : function, optional
Optional callback function. It is called on every iteration as
``callback(x, f)`` where `x` is the current solution and `f`
the corresponding residual. For all methods but 'hybr' and 'lm'.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. E.g. `xtol` or `maxiter`, see
:obj:`show_options()` for details.
Returns
-------
sol : OptimizeResult
The solution represented as a ``OptimizeResult`` object.
Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
Boolean flag indicating if the algorithm exited successfully and
``message`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter. The default method is *hybr*.
Method *hybr* uses a modification of the Powell hybrid method as
implemented in MINPACK [1]_.
Method *lm* solves the system of nonlinear equations in a least squares
sense using a modification of the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm as
implemented in MINPACK [1]_.
Method *df-sane* is a derivative-free spectral method. [3]_
Methods *broyden1*, *broyden2*, *anderson*, *linearmixing*,
*diagbroyden*, *excitingmixing*, *krylov* are inexact Newton methods,
with backtracking or full line searches [2]_. Each method corresponds
to a particular Jacobian approximations. See `nonlin` for details.
- Method *broyden1* uses Broyden's first Jacobian approximation, it is
known as Broyden's good method.
- Method *broyden2* uses Broyden's second Jacobian approximation, it
is known as Broyden's bad method.
- Method *anderson* uses (extended) Anderson mixing.
- Method *Krylov* uses Krylov approximation for inverse Jacobian. It
is suitable for large-scale problem.
- Method *diagbroyden* uses diagonal Broyden Jacobian approximation.
- Method *linearmixing* uses a scalar Jacobian approximation.
- Method *excitingmixing* uses a tuned diagonal Jacobian
approximation.
.. warning::
The algorithms implemented for methods *diagbroyden*,
*linearmixing* and *excitingmixing* may be useful for specific
problems, but whether they will work may depend strongly on the
problem.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
References
----------
.. [1] More, Jorge J., Burton S. Garbow, and Kenneth E. Hillstrom.
1980. User Guide for MINPACK-1.
.. [2] C. T. Kelley. 1995. Iterative Methods for Linear and Nonlinear
Equations. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
<http://www.siam.org/books/kelley/fr16/index.php>
.. [3] W. La Cruz, J.M. Martinez, M. Raydan. Math. Comp. 75, 1429 (2006).
Examples
--------
The following functions define a system of nonlinear equations and its
jacobian.
>>> def fun(x):
... return [x[0] + 0.5 * (x[0] - x[1])**3 - 1.0,
... 0.5 * (x[1] - x[0])**3 + x[1]]
>>> def jac(x):
... return np.array([[1 + 1.5 * (x[0] - x[1])**2,
... -1.5 * (x[0] - x[1])**2],
... [-1.5 * (x[1] - x[0])**2,
... 1 + 1.5 * (x[1] - x[0])**2]])
A solution can be obtained as follows.
>>> from scipy import optimize
>>> sol = optimize.root(fun, [0, 0], jac=jac, method='hybr')
>>> sol.x
array([ 0.8411639, 0.1588361])
"""
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args,)
meth = method.lower()
if options is None:
options = {}
if callback is not None and meth in ('hybr', 'lm'):
warn('Method %s does not accept callback.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# fun also returns the jacobian
if not callable(jac) and meth in ('hybr', 'lm'):
if bool(jac):
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = None
# set default tolerances
if tol is not None:
options = dict(options)
if meth in ('hybr', 'lm'):
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
elif meth in ('df-sane',):
options.setdefault('ftol', tol)
elif meth in ('broyden1', 'broyden2', 'anderson', 'linearmixing',
'diagbroyden', 'excitingmixing', 'krylov'):
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
options.setdefault('xatol', np.inf)
options.setdefault('ftol', np.inf)
options.setdefault('fatol', np.inf)
if meth == 'hybr':
sol = _root_hybr(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac, **options)
elif meth == 'lm':
sol = _root_leastsq(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac, **options)
elif meth == 'df-sane':
_warn_jac_unused(jac, method)
sol = _root_df_sane(fun, x0, args=args, callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth in ('broyden1', 'broyden2', 'anderson', 'linearmixing',
'diagbroyden', 'excitingmixing', 'krylov'):
_warn_jac_unused(jac, method)
sol = _root_nonlin_solve(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac,
_method=meth, _callback=callback,
**options)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
return sol
def cdist(XA, XB, metric='euclidean', p=2, V=None, VI=None, w=None):
timer = MyTimer.MyTimerCLS()
timer.refresh('enter cidst')
XA = np.asarray(XA, order='c')
XB = np.asarray(XB, order='c')
timer.refresh('asarray')
# The C code doesn't do striding.
XA = _copy_array_if_base_present(_convert_to_double(XA))
XB = _copy_array_if_base_present(_convert_to_double(XB))
timer.refresh('_copy_array_if_base_present')
s = XA.shape
sB = XB.shape
timer.refresh('get shape')
if len(s) != 2:
raise ValueError('XA must be a 2-dimensional array.')
if len(sB) != 2:
raise ValueError('XB must be a 2-dimensional array.')
if s[1] != sB[1]:
raise ValueError('XA and XB must have the same number of columns '
'(i.e. feature dimension.)')
timer.refresh('error check')
mA = s[0]
mB = sB[0]
n = s[1]
timer.refresh('get dim')
dm = np.zeros((mA, mB), dtype=np.double)
timer.refresh(' np.zeros ')
if callable(metric):
if metric == minkowski:
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = minkowski(XA[i, :], XB[j, :], p)
elif metric == wminkowski:
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = wminkowski(XA[i, :], XB[j, :], p, w)
elif metric == seuclidean:
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = seuclidean(XA[i, :], XB[j, :], V)
elif metric == mahalanobis:
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = mahalanobis(XA[i, :], XB[j, :], V)
else:
for i in xrange(0, mA):
for j in xrange(0, mB):
dm[i, j] = metric(XA[i, :], XB[j, :])
timer.refresh(' if callable ')
print 'cool'
elif isinstance(metric, string_types):
mstr = metric.lower()
timer.refresh('else')
try:
validate, cdist_fn = _SIMPLE_CDIST[mstr]
XA = validate(XA)
XB = validate(XB)
cdist_fn(XA, XB, dm)
return dm
except KeyError:
pass
timer.refresh(' try')
if mstr in ['hamming', 'hamm', 'ha', 'h']:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_hamming_bool_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_hamming_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['jaccard', 'jacc', 'ja', 'j']:
if XA.dtype == bool:
XA = _convert_to_bool(XA)
XB = _convert_to_bool(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_jaccard_bool_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
else:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_distance_wrap.cdist_jaccard_wrap(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['minkowski', 'mi', 'm', 'pnorm']:
timer.refresh('before _convert_to_double')
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
timer.refresh('_convert_to_double')
_distance_wrap.cdist_minkowski_wrap(XA, XB, dm, p)
timer.refresh('after minkowski')
elif mstr in ['wminkowski', 'wmi', 'wm', 'wpnorm']:
timer.refresh('before _convert_to_double')
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
timer.refresh('_convert_to_double')
w = _convert_to_double(w)
_distance_wrap.cdist_weighted_minkowski_wrap(XA, XB, dm, p, w)
elif mstr in ['seuclidean', 'se', 's']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
if V is not None:
V = np.asarray(V, order='c')
if V.dtype != np.double:
raise TypeError('Variance vector V must contain doubles.')
if len(V.shape) != 1:
raise ValueError('Variance vector V must be '
'one-dimensional.')
if V.shape[0] != n:
raise ValueError('Variance vector V must be of the same '
'dimension as the vectors on which the '
'distances are computed.')
# The C code doesn't do striding.
VV = _copy_array_if_base_present(_convert_to_double(V))
else:
VV = np.var(np.vstack([XA, XB]), axis=0, ddof=1)
_distance_wrap.cdist_seuclidean_wrap(XA, XB, VV, dm)
elif mstr in ['cosine', 'cos']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
_cosine_cdist(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['correlation', 'co']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
XA -= XA.mean(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
XB -= XB.mean(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
_cosine_cdist(XA, XB, dm)
elif mstr in ['mahalanobis', 'mahal', 'mah']:
XA = _convert_to_double(XA)
XB = _convert_to_double(XB)
if VI is not None:
VI = _convert_to_double(np.asarray(VI, order='c'))
VI = _copy_array_if_base_present(VI)
else:
m = mA + mB
if m <= n:
# There are fewer observations than the dimension of
# the observations.
raise ValueError("The number of observations (%d) is too "
"small; the covariance matrix is "
"singular. For observations with %d "
"dimensions, at least %d observations "
"are required." % (m, n, n + 1))
X = np.vstack([XA, XB])
V = np.atleast_2d(np.cov(X.T))
del X
VI = np.linalg.inv(V).T.copy()
# (u-v)V^(-1)(u-v)^T
_distance_wrap.cdist_mahalanobis_wrap(XA, XB, VI, dm)
elif metric == 'test_euclidean':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, euclidean)
elif metric == 'test_seuclidean':
if V is None:
V = np.var(np.vstack([XA, XB]), axis=0, ddof=1)
else:
V = np.asarray(V, order='c')
dm = cdist(XA, XB, lambda u, v: seuclidean(u, v, V))
elif metric == 'test_sqeuclidean':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, lambda u, v: sqeuclidean(u, v))
elif metric == 'test_braycurtis':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, braycurtis)
elif metric == 'test_mahalanobis':
if VI is None:
X = np.vstack([XA, XB])
V = np.cov(X.T)
VI = np.linalg.inv(V)
X = None
del X
else:
VI = np.asarray(VI, order='c')
VI = _copy_array_if_base_present(VI)
# (u-v)V^(-1)(u-v)^T
dm = cdist(XA, XB, (lambda u, v: mahalanobis(u, v, VI)))
elif metric == 'test_canberra':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, canberra)
elif metric == 'test_cityblock':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, cityblock)
elif metric == 'test_minkowski':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, minkowski, p=p)
elif metric == 'test_wminkowski':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, wminkowski, p=p, w=w)
elif metric == 'test_correlation':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, correlation)
elif metric == 'test_hamming':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, hamming)
elif metric == 'test_jaccard':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, jaccard)
elif metric == 'test_chebyshev' or metric == 'test_chebychev':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, chebyshev)
elif metric == 'test_yule':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, yule)
elif metric == 'test_matching':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, matching)
elif metric == 'test_dice':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, dice)
elif metric == 'test_kulsinski':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, kulsinski)
elif metric == 'test_rogerstanimoto':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, rogerstanimoto)
elif metric == 'test_russellrao':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, russellrao)
elif metric == 'test_sokalsneath':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, sokalsneath)
elif metric == 'test_sokalmichener':
dm = cdist(XA, XB, sokalmichener)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown Distance Metric: %s' % mstr)
else:
raise TypeError('2nd argument metric must be a string identifier '
'or a function.')
timer.refresh('before return')
return dm, timer
def schur(a, output='real', lwork=None, overwrite_a=False, sort=None,
check_finite=True):
"""
Compute Schur decomposition of a matrix.
The Schur decomposition is::
A = Z T Z^H
where Z is unitary and T is either upper-triangular, or for real
Schur decomposition (output='real'), quasi-upper triangular. In
the quasi-triangular form, 2x2 blocks describing complex-valued
eigenvalue pairs may extrude from the diagonal.
Parameters
----------
a : (M, M) array_like
Matrix to decompose
output : {'real', 'complex'}, optional
Construct the real or complex Schur decomposition (for real matrices).
lwork : int, optional
Work array size. If None or -1, it is automatically computed.
overwrite_a : bool, optional
Whether to overwrite data in a (may improve performance).
sort : {None, callable, 'lhp', 'rhp', 'iuc', 'ouc'}, optional
Specifies whether the upper eigenvalues should be sorted. A callable
may be passed that, given a eigenvalue, returns a boolean denoting
whether the eigenvalue should be sorted to the top-left (True).
Alternatively, string parameters may be used::
'lhp' Left-hand plane (x.real < 0.0)
'rhp' Right-hand plane (x.real > 0.0)
'iuc' Inside the unit circle (x*x.conjugate() <= 1.0)
'ouc' Outside the unit circle (x*x.conjugate() > 1.0)
Defaults to None (no sorting).
check_finite : bool, optional
Whether to check that the input matrix contains only finite numbers.
Disabling may give a performance gain, but may result in problems
(crashes, non-termination) if the inputs do contain infinities or NaNs.
Returns
-------
T : (M, M) ndarray
Schur form of A. It is real-valued for the real Schur decomposition.
Z : (M, M) ndarray
An unitary Schur transformation matrix for A.
It is real-valued for the real Schur decomposition.
sdim : int
If and only if sorting was requested, a third return value will
contain the number of eigenvalues satisfying the sort condition.
Raises
------
LinAlgError
Error raised under three conditions:
1. The algorithm failed due to a failure of the QR algorithm to
compute all eigenvalues
2. If eigenvalue sorting was requested, the eigenvalues could not be
reordered due to a failure to separate eigenvalues, usually because
of poor conditioning
3. If eigenvalue sorting was requested, roundoff errors caused the
leading eigenvalues to no longer satisfy the sorting condition
See also
--------
rsf2csf : Convert real Schur form to complex Schur form
Examples
--------
>>> from scipy.linalg import schur, eigvals
>>> A = np.array([[0, 2, 2], [0, 1, 2], [1, 0, 1]])
>>> T, Z = schur(A)
>>> T
array([[ 2.65896708, 1.42440458, -1.92933439],
[ 0. , -0.32948354, -0.49063704],
[ 0. , 1.31178921, -0.32948354]])
>>> Z
array([[0.72711591, -0.60156188, 0.33079564],
[0.52839428, 0.79801892, 0.28976765],
[0.43829436, 0.03590414, -0.89811411]])
>>> T2, Z2 = schur(A, output='complex')
>>> T2
array([[ 2.65896708, -1.22839825+1.32378589j, 0.42590089+1.51937378j],
[ 0. , -0.32948354+0.80225456j, -0.59877807+0.56192146j],
[ 0. , 0. , -0.32948354-0.80225456j]])
>>> eigvals(T2)
array([2.65896708, -0.32948354+0.80225456j, -0.32948354-0.80225456j])
An arbitrary custom eig-sorting condition, having positive imaginary part,
which is satisfied by only one eigenvalue
>>> T3, Z3, sdim = schur(A, output='complex', sort=lambda x: x.imag > 0)
>>> sdim
1
"""
if output not in ['real', 'complex', 'r', 'c']:
raise ValueError("argument must be 'real', or 'complex'")
if check_finite:
a1 = asarray_chkfinite(a)
else:
a1 = asarray(a)
if len(a1.shape) != 2 or (a1.shape[0] != a1.shape[1]):
raise ValueError('expected square matrix')
typ = a1.dtype.char
if output in ['complex', 'c'] and typ not in ['F', 'D']:
if typ in _double_precision:
a1 = a1.astype('D')
typ = 'D'
else:
a1 = a1.astype('F')
typ = 'F'
overwrite_a = overwrite_a or (_datacopied(a1, a))
gees, = get_lapack_funcs(('gees',), (a1,))
if lwork is None or lwork == -1:
# get optimal work array
result = gees(lambda x: None, a1, lwork=-1)
lwork = result[-2][0].real.astype(numpy.int)
if sort is None:
sort_t = 0
sfunction = lambda x: None
else:
sort_t = 1
if callable(sort):
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x: (x.real < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x: (x.real >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x: (abs(x) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x: (abs(x) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("'sort' parameter must either be 'None', or a "
"callable, or one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
result = gees(sfunction, a1, lwork=lwork, overwrite_a=overwrite_a,
sort_t=sort_t)
info = result[-1]
if info < 0:
raise ValueError('illegal value in {}-th argument of internal gees'
''.format(-info))
elif info == a1.shape[0] + 1:
raise LinAlgError('Eigenvalues could not be separated for reordering.')
elif info == a1.shape[0] + 2:
raise LinAlgError('Leading eigenvalues do not satisfy sort condition.')
elif info > 0:
raise LinAlgError("Schur form not found. Possibly ill-conditioned.")
if sort_t == 0:
return result[0], result[-3]
else:
return result[0], result[-3], result[1]
def root_scalar(f, args=(), method=None, bracket=None,
fprime=None, fprime2=None,
x0=None, x1=None,
xtol=None, rtol=None, maxiter=None,
options=None):
"""
Find a root of a scalar function.
Parameters
----------
f : callable
A function to find a root of.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its derivative(s).
method : str, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'bisect' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-bisect>`
- 'brentq' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-brentq>`
- 'brenth' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-brenth>`
- 'ridder' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-ridder>`
- 'toms748' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-toms748>`
- 'newton' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-newton>`
- 'secant' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-secant>`
- 'halley' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root_scalar-halley>`
bracket: A sequence of 2 floats, optional
An interval bracketing a root. `f(x, *args)` must have different
signs at the two endpoints.
x0 : float, optional
Initial guess.
x1 : float, optional
A second guess.
fprime : bool or callable, optional
If `fprime` is a boolean and is True, `f` is assumed to return the
value of the objective function and of the derivative.
`fprime` can also be a callable returning the derivative of `f`. In
this case, it must accept the same arguments as `f`.
fprime2 : bool or callable, optional
If `fprime2` is a boolean and is True, `f` is assumed to return the
value of the objective function and of the
first and second derivatives.
`fprime2` can also be a callable returning the second derivative of `f`.
In this case, it must accept the same arguments as `f`.
xtol : float, optional
Tolerance (absolute) for termination.
rtol : float, optional
Tolerance (relative) for termination.
maxiter : int, optional
Maximum number of iterations.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. E.g. ``k``, see
:obj:`show_options()` for details.
Returns
-------
sol : RootResults
The solution represented as a ``RootResults`` object.
Important attributes are: ``root`` the solution , ``converged`` a
boolean flag indicating if the algorithm exited successfully and
``flag`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`RootResults` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
root : Find a root of a vector function.
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter.
The default is to use the best method available for the situation
presented.
If a bracket is provided, it may use one of the bracketing methods.
If a derivative and an initial value are specified, it may
select one of the derivative-based methods.
If no method is judged applicable, it will raise an Exception.
Examples
--------
Find the root of a simple cubic
>>> from scipy import optimize
>>> def f(x):
... return (x**3 - 1) # only one real root at x = 1
>>> def fprime(x):
... return 3*x**2
The `brentq` method takes as input a bracket
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f, bracket=[0, 3], method='brentq')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 10, 11)
The `newton` method takes as input a single point and uses the derivative(s)
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f, x0=0.2, fprime=fprime, method='newton')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 11, 22)
The function can provide the value and derivative(s) in a single call.
>>> def f_p_pp(x):
... return (x**3 - 1), 3*x**2, 6*x
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f_p_pp, x0=0.2, fprime=True, method='newton')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 11, 11)
>>> sol = optimize.root_scalar(f_p_pp, x0=0.2, fprime=True, fprime2=True, method='halley')
>>> sol.root, sol.iterations, sol.function_calls
(1.0, 7, 8)
"""
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args,)
if options is None:
options = {}
# fun also returns the derivative(s)
is_memoized = False
if fprime2 is not None and not callable(fprime2):
if bool(fprime2):
f = MemoizeDer(f)
is_memoized = True
fprime2 = f.fprime2
fprime = f.fprime
else:
fprime2 = None
if fprime is not None and not callable(fprime):
if bool(fprime):
f = MemoizeDer(f)
is_memoized = True
fprime = f.fprime
else:
fprime = None
# respect solver-specific default tolerances - only pass in if actually set
kwargs = {}
for k in ['xtol', 'rtol', 'maxiter']:
v = locals().get(k)
if v is not None:
kwargs[k] = v
# Set any solver-specific options
if options:
kwargs.update(options)
# Always request full_output from the underlying method as _root_scalar
# always returns a RootResults object
kwargs.update(full_output=True, disp=False)
# Pick a method if not specified.
# Use the "best" method available for the situation.
if not method:
if bracket:
method = 'brentq'
elif x0 is not None:
if fprime:
if fprime2:
method = 'halley'
else:
method = 'newton'
else:
method = 'secant'
if not method:
raise ValueError('Unable to select a solver as neither bracket '
'nor starting point provided.')
meth = method.lower()
map2underlying = {'halley': 'newton', 'secant': 'newton'}
try:
methodc = getattr(optzeros, map2underlying.get(meth, meth))
except AttributeError:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % meth)
if meth in ['bisect', 'ridder', 'brentq', 'brenth', 'toms748']:
if not isinstance(bracket, (list, tuple, np.ndarray)):
raise ValueError('Bracket needed for %s' % method)
a, b = bracket[:2]
r, sol = methodc(f, a, b, args=args, **kwargs)
elif meth in ['secant']:
if x0 is None:
raise ValueError('x0 must not be None for %s' % method)
if x1 is None:
raise ValueError('x1 must not be None for %s' % method)
if 'xtol' in kwargs:
kwargs['tol'] = kwargs.pop('xtol')
r, sol = methodc(f, x0, args=args, fprime=None, fprime2=None,
x1=x1, **kwargs)
elif meth in ['newton']:
if x0 is None:
raise ValueError('x0 must not be None for %s' % method)
if not fprime:
raise ValueError('fprime must be specified for %s' % method)
if 'xtol' in kwargs:
kwargs['tol'] = kwargs.pop('xtol')
r, sol = methodc(f, x0, args=args, fprime=fprime, fprime2=None,
**kwargs)
elif meth in ['halley']:
if x0 is None:
raise ValueError('x0 must not be None for %s' % method)
if not fprime:
raise ValueError('fprime must be specified for %s' % method)
if not fprime2:
raise ValueError('fprime2 must be specified for %s' % method)
if 'xtol' in kwargs:
kwargs['tol'] = kwargs.pop('xtol')
r, sol = methodc(f, x0, args=args, fprime=fprime, fprime2=fprime2, **kwargs)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
if is_memoized:
# Replace the function_calls count with the memoized count.
# Avoids double and triple-counting.
n_calls = f.n_calls
sol.function_calls = n_calls
return sol
def schur(a, output='real', lwork=None, overwrite_a=False, sort=None,
check_finite=True):
"""
Compute Schur decomposition of a matrix.
The Schur decomposition is::
A = Z T Z^H
where Z is unitary and T is either upper-triangular, or for real
Schur decomposition (output='real'), quasi-upper triangular. In
the quasi-triangular form, 2x2 blocks describing complex-valued
eigenvalue pairs may extrude from the diagonal.
Parameters
----------
a : (M, M) array_like
Matrix to decompose
output : {'real', 'complex'}, optional
Construct the real or complex Schur decomposition (for real matrices).
lwork : int, optional
Work array size. If None or -1, it is automatically computed.
overwrite_a : bool, optional
Whether to overwrite data in a (may improve performance).
sort : {None, callable, 'lhp', 'rhp', 'iuc', 'ouc'}, optional
Specifies whether the upper eigenvalues should be sorted. A callable
may be passed that, given a eigenvalue, returns a boolean denoting
whether the eigenvalue should be sorted to the top-left (True).
Alternatively, string parameters may be used::
'lhp' Left-hand plane (x.real < 0.0)
'rhp' Right-hand plane (x.real > 0.0)
'iuc' Inside the unit circle (x*x.conjugate() <= 1.0)
'ouc' Outside the unit circle (x*x.conjugate() > 1.0)
Defaults to None (no sorting).
check_finite : bool, optional
Whether to check that the input matrix contains only finite numbers.
Disabling may give a performance gain, but may result in problems
(crashes, non-termination) if the inputs do contain infinities or NaNs.
Returns
-------
T : (M, M) ndarray
Schur form of A. It is real-valued for the real Schur decomposition.
Z : (M, M) ndarray
An unitary Schur transformation matrix for A.
It is real-valued for the real Schur decomposition.
sdim : int
If and only if sorting was requested, a third return value will
contain the number of eigenvalues satisfying the sort condition.
Raises
------
LinAlgError
Error raised under three conditions:
1. The algorithm failed due to a failure of the QR algorithm to
compute all eigenvalues
2. If eigenvalue sorting was requested, the eigenvalues could not be
reordered due to a failure to separate eigenvalues, usually because
of poor conditioning
3. If eigenvalue sorting was requested, roundoff errors caused the
leading eigenvalues to no longer satisfy the sorting condition
See also
--------
rsf2csf : Convert real Schur form to complex Schur form
Examples
--------
>>> from scipy.linalg import schur, eigvals
>>> A = np.array([[0, 2, 2], [0, 1, 2], [1, 0, 1]])
>>> T, Z = schur(A)
>>> T
array([[ 2.65896708, 1.42440458, -1.92933439],
[ 0. , -0.32948354, -0.49063704],
[ 0. , 1.31178921, -0.32948354]])
>>> Z
array([[0.72711591, -0.60156188, 0.33079564],
[0.52839428, 0.79801892, 0.28976765],
[0.43829436, 0.03590414, -0.89811411]])
>>> T2, Z2 = schur(A, output='complex')
>>> T2
array([[ 2.65896708, -1.22839825+1.32378589j, 0.42590089+1.51937378j],
[ 0. , -0.32948354+0.80225456j, -0.59877807+0.56192146j],
[ 0. , 0. , -0.32948354-0.80225456j]])
>>> eigvals(T2)
array([2.65896708, -0.32948354+0.80225456j, -0.32948354-0.80225456j])
An arbitrary custom eig-sorting condition, having positive imaginary part,
which is satisfied by only one eigenvalue
>>> T3, Z3, sdim = schur(A, output='complex', sort=lambda x: x.imag > 0)
>>> sdim
1
"""
if output not in ['real', 'complex', 'r', 'c']:
raise ValueError("argument must be 'real', or 'complex'")
if check_finite:
a1 = asarray_chkfinite(a)
else:
a1 = asarray(a)
if len(a1.shape) != 2 or (a1.shape[0] != a1.shape[1]):
raise ValueError('expected square matrix')
typ = a1.dtype.char
if output in ['complex', 'c'] and typ not in ['F', 'D']:
if typ in _double_precision:
a1 = a1.astype('D')
typ = 'D'
else:
a1 = a1.astype('F')
typ = 'F'
overwrite_a = overwrite_a or (_datacopied(a1, a))
gees, = get_lapack_funcs(('gees',), (a1,))
if lwork is None or lwork == -1:
# get optimal work array
result = gees(lambda x: None, a1, lwork=-1)
lwork = result[-2][0].real.astype(numpy.int)
if sort is None:
sort_t = 0
sfunction = lambda x: None
else:
sort_t = 1
if callable(sort):
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x: (x.real < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x: (x.real >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x: (abs(x) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x: (abs(x) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("'sort' parameter must either be 'None', or a "
"callable, or one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
result = gees(sfunction, a1, lwork=lwork, overwrite_a=overwrite_a,
sort_t=sort_t)
info = result[-1]
if info < 0:
raise ValueError('illegal value in {}-th argument of internal gees'
''.format(-info))
elif info == a1.shape[0] + 1:
raise LinAlgError('Eigenvalues could not be separated for reordering.')
elif info == a1.shape[0] + 2:
raise LinAlgError('Leading eigenvalues do not satisfy sort condition.')
elif info > 0:
raise LinAlgError("Schur form not found. Possibly ill-conditioned.")
if sort_t == 0:
return result[0], result[-3]
else:
return result[0], result[-3], result[1]
def minimize_scalar(fun, bracket=None, bounds=None, args=(),
method='brent', tol=None, options=None):
"""Minimization of scalar function of one variable.
Parameters
----------
fun : callable
Objective function.
Scalar function, must return a scalar.
bracket : sequence, optional
For methods 'brent' and 'golden', `bracket` defines the bracketing
interval and can either have three items ``(a, b, c)`` so that
``a < b < c`` and ``fun(b) < fun(a), fun(c)`` or two items ``a`` and
``c`` which are assumed to be a starting interval for a downhill
bracket search (see `bracket`); it doesn't always mean that the
obtained solution will satisfy ``a <= x <= c``.
bounds : sequence, optional
For method 'bounded', `bounds` is mandatory and must have two items
corresponding to the optimization bounds.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function.
method : str or callable, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of:
- 'Brent' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize_scalar-brent>`
- 'Bounded' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize_scalar-bounded>`
- 'Golden' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize_scalar-golden>`
- custom - a callable object (added in version 0.14.0), see below
tol : float, optional
Tolerance for termination. For detailed control, use solver-specific
options.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options.
maxiter : int
Maximum number of iterations to perform.
disp : bool
Set to True to print convergence messages.
See :func:`show_options()` for solver-specific options.
Returns
-------
res : OptimizeResult
The optimization result represented as a ``OptimizeResult`` object.
Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
Boolean flag indicating if the optimizer exited successfully and
``message`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
minimize : Interface to minimization algorithms for scalar multivariate
functions
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter. The default method is *Brent*.
Method :ref:`Brent <optimize.minimize_scalar-brent>` uses Brent's
algorithm to find a local minimum. The algorithm uses inverse
parabolic interpolation when possible to speed up convergence of
the golden section method.
Method :ref:`Golden <optimize.minimize_scalar-golden>` uses the
golden section search technique. It uses analog of the bisection
method to decrease the bracketed interval. It is usually
preferable to use the *Brent* method.
Method :ref:`Bounded <optimize.minimize_scalar-bounded>` can
perform bounded minimization. It uses the Brent method to find a
local minimum in the interval x1 < xopt < x2.
**Custom minimizers**
It may be useful to pass a custom minimization method, for example
when using some library frontend to minimize_scalar. You can simply
pass a callable as the ``method`` parameter.
The callable is called as ``method(fun, args, **kwargs, **options)``
where ``kwargs`` corresponds to any other parameters passed to `minimize`
(such as `bracket`, `tol`, etc.), except the `options` dict, which has
its contents also passed as `method` parameters pair by pair. The method
shall return an ``OptimizeResult`` object.
The provided `method` callable must be able to accept (and possibly ignore)
arbitrary parameters; the set of parameters accepted by `minimize` may
expand in future versions and then these parameters will be passed to
the method. You can find an example in the scipy.optimize tutorial.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
Examples
--------
Consider the problem of minimizing the following function.
>>> def f(x):
... return (x - 2) * x * (x + 2)**2
Using the *Brent* method, we find the local minimum as:
>>> from scipy.optimize import minimize_scalar
>>> res = minimize_scalar(f)
>>> res.x
1.28077640403
Using the *Bounded* method, we find a local minimum with specified
bounds as:
>>> res = minimize_scalar(f, bounds=(-3, -1), method='bounded')
>>> res.x
-2.0000002026
"""
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args,)
if callable(method):
meth = "_custom"
else:
meth = method.lower()
if options is None:
options = {}
if tol is not None:
options = dict(options)
if meth == 'bounded' and 'xatol' not in options:
warn("Method 'bounded' does not support relative tolerance in x; "
"defaulting to absolute tolerance.", RuntimeWarning)
options['xatol'] = tol
elif meth == '_custom':
options.setdefault('tol', tol)
else:
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
if meth == '_custom':
return method(fun, args=args, bracket=bracket, bounds=bounds, **options)
elif meth == 'brent':
return _minimize_scalar_brent(fun, bracket, args, **options)
elif meth == 'bounded':
if bounds is None:
raise ValueError('The `bounds` parameter is mandatory for '
'method `bounded`.')
return _minimize_scalar_bounded(fun, bounds, args, **options)
elif meth == 'golden':
return _minimize_scalar_golden(fun, bracket, args, **options)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
def fmin_cobyla(func, x0, cons, args=(), consargs=None, rhobeg=1.0,
rhoend=1e-4, maxfun=1000, disp=None, catol=2e-4):
"""
Minimize a function using the Constrained Optimization BY Linear
Approximation (COBYLA) method. This method wraps a FORTRAN
implementation of the algorithm.
Parameters
----------
func : callable
Function to minimize. In the form func(x, \\*args).
x0 : ndarray
Initial guess.
cons : sequence
Constraint functions; must all be ``>=0`` (a single function
if only 1 constraint). Each function takes the parameters `x`
as its first argument, and it can return either a single number or
an array or list of numbers.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments to pass to function.
consargs : tuple, optional
Extra arguments to pass to constraint functions (default of None means
use same extra arguments as those passed to func).
Use ``()`` for no extra arguments.
rhobeg : float, optional
Reasonable initial changes to the variables.
rhoend : float, optional
Final accuracy in the optimization (not precisely guaranteed). This
is a lower bound on the size of the trust region.
disp : {0, 1, 2, 3}, optional
Controls the frequency of output; 0 implies no output.
maxfun : int, optional
Maximum number of function evaluations.
catol : float, optional
Absolute tolerance for constraint violations.
Returns
-------
x : ndarray
The argument that minimises `f`.
See also
--------
minimize: Interface to minimization algorithms for multivariate
functions. See the 'COBYLA' `method` in particular.
Notes
-----
This algorithm is based on linear approximations to the objective
function and each constraint. We briefly describe the algorithm.
Suppose the function is being minimized over k variables. At the
jth iteration the algorithm has k+1 points v_1, ..., v_(k+1),
an approximate solution x_j, and a radius RHO_j.
(i.e. linear plus a constant) approximations to the objective
function and constraint functions such that their function values
agree with the linear approximation on the k+1 points v_1,.., v_(k+1).
This gives a linear program to solve (where the linear approximations
of the constraint functions are constrained to be non-negative).
However the linear approximations are likely only good
approximations near the current simplex, so the linear program is
given the further requirement that the solution, which
will become x_(j+1), must be within RHO_j from x_j. RHO_j only
decreases, never increases. The initial RHO_j is rhobeg and the
final RHO_j is rhoend. In this way COBYLA's iterations behave
like a trust region algorithm.
Additionally, the linear program may be inconsistent, or the
approximation may give poor improvement. For details about
how these issues are resolved, as well as how the points v_i are
updated, refer to the source code or the references below.
References
----------
Powell M.J.D. (1994), "A direct search optimization method that models
the objective and constraint functions by linear interpolation.", in
Advances in Optimization and Numerical Analysis, eds. S. Gomez and
J-P Hennart, Kluwer Academic (Dordrecht), pp. 51-67
Powell M.J.D. (1998), "Direct search algorithms for optimization
calculations", Acta Numerica 7, 287-336
Powell M.J.D. (2007), "A view of algorithms for optimization without
derivatives", Cambridge University Technical Report DAMTP 2007/NA03
Examples
--------
Minimize the objective function f(x,y) = x*y subject
to the constraints x**2 + y**2 < 1 and y > 0::
>>> def objective(x):
... return x[0]*x[1]
...
>>> def constr1(x):
... return 1 - (x[0]**2 + x[1]**2)
...
>>> def constr2(x):
... return x[1]
...
>>> from scipy.optimize import fmin_cobyla
>>> fmin_cobyla(objective, [0.0, 0.1], [constr1, constr2], rhoend=1e-7)
array([-0.70710685, 0.70710671])
The exact solution is (-sqrt(2)/2, sqrt(2)/2).
"""
err = "cons must be a sequence of callable functions or a single"\
" callable function."
try:
len(cons)
except TypeError:
if callable(cons):
cons = [cons]
else:
raise TypeError(err)
else:
for thisfunc in cons:
if not callable(thisfunc):
raise TypeError(err)
if consargs is None:
consargs = args
# build constraints
con = tuple({'type': 'ineq', 'fun': c, 'args': consargs} for c in cons)
# options
opts = {'rhobeg': rhobeg,
'tol': rhoend,
'disp': disp,
'maxiter': maxfun,
'catol': catol}
sol = _minimize_cobyla(func, x0, args, constraints=con,
**opts)
if disp and not sol['success']:
print("COBYLA failed to find a solution: %s" % (sol.message,))
return sol['x']
def binned_statistic_dd(sample, values, statistic='mean',
bins=10, range=None, expand_binnumbers=False):
"""
Compute a multidimensional binned statistic for a set of data.
This is a generalization of a histogramdd function. A histogram divides
the space into bins, and returns the count of the number of points in
each bin. This function allows the computation of the sum, mean, median,
or other statistic of the values within each bin.
Parameters
----------
sample : array_like
Data to histogram passed as a sequence of D arrays of length N, or
as an (N,D) array.
values : (N,) array_like or list of (N,) array_like
The data on which the statistic will be computed. This must be
the same shape as `x`, or a list of sequences - each with the same
shape as `x`. If `values` is such a list, the statistic will be
computed on each independently.
statistic : string or callable, optional
The statistic to compute (default is 'mean').
The following statistics are available:
* 'mean' : compute the mean of values for points within each bin.
Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'median' : compute the median of values for points within each
bin. Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'count' : compute the count of points within each bin. This is
identical to an unweighted histogram. `values` array is not
referenced.
* 'sum' : compute the sum of values for points within each bin.
This is identical to a weighted histogram.
* function : a user-defined function which takes a 1D array of
values, and outputs a single numerical statistic. This function
will be called on the values in each bin. Empty bins will be
represented by function([]), or NaN if this returns an error.
bins : sequence or int, optional
The bin specification must be in one of the following forms:
* A sequence of arrays describing the bin edges along each dimension.
* The number of bins for each dimension (nx, ny, ... = bins).
* The number of bins for all dimensions (nx = ny = ... = bins).
range : sequence, optional
A sequence of lower and upper bin edges to be used if the edges are
not given explicitely in `bins`. Defaults to the minimum and maximum
values along each dimension.
expand_binnumbers : bool, optional
'False' (default): the returned `binnumber` is a shape (N,) array of
linearized bin indices.
'True': the returned `binnumber` is 'unraveled' into a shape (D,N)
ndarray, where each row gives the bin numbers in the corresponding
dimension.
See the `binnumber` returned value, and the `Examples` section of
`binned_statistic_2d`.
.. versionadded:: 0.17.0
Returns
-------
statistic : ndarray, shape(nx1, nx2, nx3,...)
The values of the selected statistic in each two-dimensional bin.
bin_edges : list of ndarrays
A list of D arrays describing the (nxi + 1) bin edges for each
dimension.
binnumber : (N,) array of ints or (D,N) ndarray of ints
This assigns to each element of `sample` an integer that represents the
bin in which this observation falls. The representation depends on the
`expand_binnumbers` argument. See `Notes` for details.
See Also
--------
numpy.digitize, numpy.histogramdd, binned_statistic, binned_statistic_2d
Notes
-----
Binedges:
All but the last (righthand-most) bin is half-open in each dimension. In
other words, if `bins` is ``[1, 2, 3, 4]``, then the first bin is
``[1, 2)`` (including 1, but excluding 2) and the second ``[2, 3)``. The
last bin, however, is ``[3, 4]``, which *includes* 4.
`binnumber`:
This returned argument assigns to each element of `sample` an integer that
represents the bin in which it belongs. The representation depends on the
`expand_binnumbers` argument. If 'False' (default): The returned
`binnumber` is a shape (N,) array of linearized indices mapping each
element of `sample` to its corresponding bin (using row-major ordering).
If 'True': The returned `binnumber` is a shape (D,N) ndarray where
each row indicates bin placements for each dimension respectively. In each
dimension, a binnumber of `i` means the corresponding value is between
(bin_edges[D][i-1], bin_edges[D][i]), for each dimension 'D'.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
"""
known_stats = ['mean', 'median', 'count', 'sum', 'std']
if not callable(statistic) and statistic not in known_stats:
raise ValueError('invalid statistic %r' % (statistic,))
# `Ndim` is the number of dimensions (e.g. `2` for `binned_statistic_2d`)
# `Dlen` is the length of elements along each dimension.
# This code is based on np.histogramdd
try:
# `sample` is an ND-array.
Dlen, Ndim = sample.shape
except (AttributeError, ValueError):
# `sample` is a sequence of 1D arrays.
sample = np.atleast_2d(sample).T
Dlen, Ndim = sample.shape
# Store initial shape of `values` to preserve it in the output
values = np.asarray(values)
input_shape = list(values.shape)
# Make sure that `values` is 2D to iterate over rows
values = np.atleast_2d(values)
Vdim, Vlen = values.shape
# Make sure `values` match `sample`
if(statistic != 'count' and Vlen != Dlen):
raise AttributeError('The number of `values` elements must match the '
'length of each `sample` dimension.')
nbin = np.empty(Ndim, int) # Number of bins in each dimension
edges = Ndim * [None] # Bin edges for each dim (will be 2D array)
dedges = Ndim * [None] # Spacing between edges (will be 2D array)
try:
M = len(bins)
if M != Ndim:
raise AttributeError('The dimension of bins must be equal '
'to the dimension of the sample x.')
except TypeError:
bins = Ndim * [bins]
# Select range for each dimension
# Used only if number of bins is given.
if range is None:
smin = np.atleast_1d(np.array(sample.min(axis=0), float))
smax = np.atleast_1d(np.array(sample.max(axis=0), float))
else:
smin = np.zeros(Ndim)
smax = np.zeros(Ndim)
for i in xrange(Ndim):
smin[i], smax[i] = range[i]
# Make sure the bins have a finite width.
for i in xrange(len(smin)):
if smin[i] == smax[i]:
smin[i] = smin[i] - .5
smax[i] = smax[i] + .5
# Create edge arrays
for i in xrange(Ndim):
if np.isscalar(bins[i]):
nbin[i] = bins[i] + 2 # +2 for outlier bins
edges[i] = np.linspace(smin[i], smax[i], nbin[i] - 1)
else:
edges[i] = np.asarray(bins[i], float)
nbin[i] = len(edges[i]) + 1 # +1 for outlier bins
dedges[i] = np.diff(edges[i])
nbin = np.asarray(nbin)
# Compute the bin number each sample falls into, in each dimension
sampBin = {}
for i in xrange(Ndim):
sampBin[i] = np.digitize(sample[:, i], edges[i])
# Using `digitize`, values that fall on an edge are put in the right bin.
# For the rightmost bin, we want values equal to the right
# edge to be counted in the last bin, and not as an outlier.
for i in xrange(Ndim):
# Find the rounding precision
decimal = int(-np.log10(dedges[i].min())) + 6
# Find which points are on the rightmost edge.
on_edge = np.where(np.around(sample[:, i], decimal) ==
np.around(edges[i][-1], decimal))[0]
# Shift these points one bin to the left.
sampBin[i][on_edge] -= 1
# Compute the sample indices in the flattened statistic matrix.
ni = nbin.argsort()
# `binnumbers` is which bin (in linearized `Ndim` space) each sample goes
binnumbers = np.zeros(Dlen, int)
for i in xrange(0, Ndim - 1):
binnumbers += sampBin[ni[i]] * nbin[ni[i + 1:]].prod()
binnumbers += sampBin[ni[-1]]
result = np.empty([Vdim, nbin.prod()], float)
if statistic == 'mean':
result.fill(np.nan)
flatcount = np.bincount(binnumbers, None)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
flatsum = np.bincount(binnumbers, values[vv])
result[vv, a] = flatsum[a] / flatcount[a]
elif statistic == 'std':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(binnumbers, None)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
flatsum = np.bincount(binnumbers, values[vv])
flatsum2 = np.bincount(binnumbers, values[vv] ** 2)
result[vv, a] = np.sqrt(flatsum2[a] / flatcount[a] -
(flatsum[a] / flatcount[a]) ** 2)
elif statistic == 'count':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(binnumbers, None)
a = np.arange(len(flatcount))
result[:, a] = flatcount[np.newaxis, :]
elif statistic == 'sum':
result.fill(0)
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
flatsum = np.bincount(binnumbers, values[vv])
a = np.arange(len(flatsum))
result[vv, a] = flatsum
elif statistic == 'median':
result.fill(np.nan)
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
result[vv, i] = np.median(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
elif callable(statistic):
with warnings.catch_warnings():
# Numpy generates a warnings for mean/std/... with empty list
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore', category=RuntimeWarning)
old = np.seterr(invalid='ignore')
try:
null = statistic([])
except:
null = np.nan
np.seterr(**old)
result.fill(null)
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
result[vv, i] = statistic(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
# Shape into a proper matrix
result = result.reshape(np.append(Vdim, np.sort(nbin)))
for i in xrange(nbin.size):
j = ni.argsort()[i]
# Accomodate the extra `Vdim` dimension-zero with `+1`
result = result.swapaxes(i+1, j+1)
ni[i], ni[j] = ni[j], ni[i]
# Remove outliers (indices 0 and -1 for each bin-dimension).
core = [slice(None)] + Ndim * [slice(1, -1)]
result = result[core]
# Unravel binnumbers into an ndarray, each row the bins for each dimension
if(expand_binnumbers and Ndim > 1):
binnumbers = np.asarray(np.unravel_index(binnumbers, nbin))
if np.any(result.shape[1:] != nbin - 2):
raise RuntimeError('Internal Shape Error')
# Reshape to have output (`reulst`) match input (`values`) shape
result = result.reshape(input_shape[:-1] + list(nbin-2))
return BinnedStatisticddResult(result, edges, binnumbers)
def test_nan_and_call(*args, **kwargs):
if any((np.isnan(arg).any() for arg in args if not callable(arg))):
# call my version
return func(*args, **kwargs)
# call scipy version
return getattr(sci_dist, func.__name__)(*args, **kwargs)
def root(fun,
x0,
args=(),
method='hybr',
jac=None,
tol=None,
callback=None,
options=None):
"""
Find a root of a vector function.
Parameters
----------
fun : callable
A vector function to find a root of.
x0 : ndarray
Initial guess.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its Jacobian.
method : str, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'hybr' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-hybr>`
- 'lm' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-lm>`
- 'broyden1' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-broyden1>`
- 'broyden2' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-broyden2>`
- 'anderson' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-anderson>`
- 'linearmixing' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-linearmixing>`
- 'diagbroyden' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-diagbroyden>`
- 'excitingmixing' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-excitingmixing>`
- 'krylov' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-krylov>`
- 'df-sane' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.root-dfsane>`
jac : bool or callable, optional
If `jac` is a Boolean and is True, `fun` is assumed to return the
value of Jacobian along with the objective function. If False, the
Jacobian will be estimated numerically.
`jac` can also be a callable returning the Jacobian of `fun`. In
this case, it must accept the same arguments as `fun`.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance for termination. For detailed control, use solver-specific
options.
callback : function, optional
Optional callback function. It is called on every iteration as
``callback(x, f)`` where `x` is the current solution and `f`
the corresponding residual. For all methods but 'hybr' and 'lm'.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. E.g. `xtol` or `maxiter`, see
:obj:`show_options()` for details.
Returns
-------
sol : OptimizeResult
The solution represented as a ``OptimizeResult`` object.
Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
Boolean flag indicating if the algorithm exited successfully and
``message`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter. The default method is *hybr*.
Method *hybr* uses a modification of the Powell hybrid method as
implemented in MINPACK [1]_.
Method *lm* solves the system of nonlinear equations in a least squares
sense using a modification of the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm as
implemented in MINPACK [1]_.
Method *df-sane* is a derivative-free spectral method. [3]_
Methods *broyden1*, *broyden2*, *anderson*, *linearmixing*,
*diagbroyden*, *excitingmixing*, *krylov* are inexact Newton methods,
with backtracking or full line searches [2]_. Each method corresponds
to a particular Jacobian approximations. See `nonlin` for details.
- Method *broyden1* uses Broyden's first Jacobian approximation, it is
known as Broyden's good method.
- Method *broyden2* uses Broyden's second Jacobian approximation, it
is known as Broyden's bad method.
- Method *anderson* uses (extended) Anderson mixing.
- Method *Krylov* uses Krylov approximation for inverse Jacobian. It
is suitable for large-scale problem.
- Method *diagbroyden* uses diagonal Broyden Jacobian approximation.
- Method *linearmixing* uses a scalar Jacobian approximation.
- Method *excitingmixing* uses a tuned diagonal Jacobian
approximation.
.. warning::
The algorithms implemented for methods *diagbroyden*,
*linearmixing* and *excitingmixing* may be useful for specific
problems, but whether they will work may depend strongly on the
problem.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
References
----------
.. [1] More, Jorge J., Burton S. Garbow, and Kenneth E. Hillstrom.
1980. User Guide for MINPACK-1.
.. [2] C. T. Kelley. 1995. Iterative Methods for Linear and Nonlinear
Equations. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
<http://www.siam.org/books/kelley/fr16/index.php>
.. [3] W. La Cruz, J.M. Martinez, M. Raydan. Math. Comp. 75, 1429 (2006).
Examples
--------
The following functions define a system of nonlinear equations and its
jacobian.
>>> def fun(x):
... return [x[0] + 0.5 * (x[0] - x[1])**3 - 1.0,
... 0.5 * (x[1] - x[0])**3 + x[1]]
>>> def jac(x):
... return np.array([[1 + 1.5 * (x[0] - x[1])**2,
... -1.5 * (x[0] - x[1])**2],
... [-1.5 * (x[1] - x[0])**2,
... 1 + 1.5 * (x[1] - x[0])**2]])
A solution can be obtained as follows.
>>> from scipy import optimize
>>> sol = optimize.root(fun, [0, 0], jac=jac, method='hybr')
>>> sol.x
array([ 0.8411639, 0.1588361])
"""
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args, )
meth = method.lower()
if options is None:
options = {}
if callback is not None and meth in ('hybr', 'lm'):
warn('Method %s does not accept callback.' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# fun also returns the jacobian
if not callable(jac) and meth in ('hybr', 'lm'):
if bool(jac):
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = None
# set default tolerances
if tol is not None:
options = dict(options)
if meth in ('hybr', 'lm'):
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
elif meth in ('df-sane', ):
options.setdefault('ftol', tol)
elif meth in ('broyden1', 'broyden2', 'anderson', 'linearmixing',
'diagbroyden', 'excitingmixing', 'krylov'):
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
options.setdefault('xatol', np.inf)
options.setdefault('ftol', np.inf)
options.setdefault('fatol', np.inf)
if meth == 'hybr':
sol = _root_hybr(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac, **options)
elif meth == 'lm':
sol = _root_leastsq(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac, **options)
elif meth == 'df-sane':
_warn_jac_unused(jac, method)
sol = _root_df_sane(fun, x0, args=args, callback=callback, **options)
elif meth in ('broyden1', 'broyden2', 'anderson', 'linearmixing',
'diagbroyden', 'excitingmixing', 'krylov'):
_warn_jac_unused(jac, method)
sol = _root_nonlin_solve(fun,
x0,
args=args,
jac=jac,
_method=meth,
_callback=callback,
**options)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
return sol
def minimize(fun, x0, args=(), method=None, jac=None, hess=None,
hessp=None, bounds=None, constraints=(), tol=None,
callback=None, options=None):
"""Minimization of scalar function of one or more variables.
In general, the optimization problems are of the form::
minimize f(x) subject to
g_i(x) >= 0, i = 1,...,m
h_j(x) = 0, j = 1,...,p
where x is a vector of one or more variables.
``g_i(x)`` are the inequality constraints.
``h_j(x)`` are the equality constrains.
Optionally, the lower and upper bounds for each element in x can also be
specified using the `bounds` argument.
Parameters
----------
fun : callable
The objective function to be minimized. Must be in the form
``f(x, *args)``. The optimizing argument, ``x``, is a 1-D array
of points, and ``args`` is a tuple of any additional fixed parameters
needed to completely specify the function.
x0 : ndarray
Initial guess. ``len(x0)`` is the dimensionality of the minimization
problem.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its
derivatives (Jacobian, Hessian).
method : str or callable, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'Nelder-Mead' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-neldermead>`
- 'Powell' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-powell>`
- 'CG' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-cg>`
- 'BFGS' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-bfgs>`
- 'Newton-CG' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-newtoncg>`
- 'L-BFGS-B' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-lbfgsb>`
- 'TNC' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-tnc>`
- 'COBYLA' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-cobyla>`
- 'SLSQP' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-slsqp>`
- 'dogleg' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-dogleg>`
- 'trust-ncg' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustncg>`
- 'trust-exact' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustexact>`
- custom - a callable object (added in version 0.14.0),
see below for description.
If not given, chosen to be one of ``BFGS``, ``L-BFGS-B``, ``SLSQP``,
depending if the problem has constraints or bounds.
jac : bool or callable, optional
Jacobian (gradient) of objective function. Only for CG, BFGS,
Newton-CG, L-BFGS-B, TNC, SLSQP, dogleg, trust-ncg.
If `jac` is a Boolean and is True, `fun` is assumed to return the
gradient along with the objective function. If False, the
gradient will be estimated numerically.
`jac` can also be a callable returning the gradient of the
objective. In this case, it must accept the same arguments as `fun`.
hess, hessp : callable, optional
Hessian (matrix of second-order derivatives) of objective function or
Hessian of objective function times an arbitrary vector p. Only for
Newton-CG, dogleg, trust-ncg.
Only one of `hessp` or `hess` needs to be given. If `hess` is
provided, then `hessp` will be ignored. If neither `hess` nor
`hessp` is provided, then the Hessian product will be approximated
using finite differences on `jac`. `hessp` must compute the Hessian
times an arbitrary vector.
bounds : sequence, optional
Bounds for variables (only for L-BFGS-B, TNC and SLSQP).
``(min, max)`` pairs for each element in ``x``, defining
the bounds on that parameter. Use None for one of ``min`` or
``max`` when there is no bound in that direction.
constraints : dict or sequence of dict, optional
Constraints definition (only for COBYLA and SLSQP).
Each constraint is defined in a dictionary with fields:
type : str
Constraint type: 'eq' for equality, 'ineq' for inequality.
fun : callable
The function defining the constraint.
jac : callable, optional
The Jacobian of `fun` (only for SLSQP).
args : sequence, optional
Extra arguments to be passed to the function and Jacobian.
Equality constraint means that the constraint function result is to
be zero whereas inequality means that it is to be non-negative.
Note that COBYLA only supports inequality constraints.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance for termination. For detailed control, use solver-specific
options.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. All methods accept the following
generic options:
maxiter : int
Maximum number of iterations to perform.
disp : bool
Set to True to print convergence messages.
For method-specific options, see :func:`show_options()`.
callback : callable, optional
Called after each iteration, as ``callback(xk)``, where ``xk`` is the
current parameter vector.
Returns
-------
res : OptimizeResult
The optimization result represented as a ``OptimizeResult`` object.
Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
Boolean flag indicating if the optimizer exited successfully and
``message`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
minimize_scalar : Interface to minimization algorithms for scalar
univariate functions
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter. The default method is *BFGS*.
**Unconstrained minimization**
Method :ref:`Nelder-Mead <optimize.minimize-neldermead>` uses the
Simplex algorithm [1]_, [2]_. This algorithm is robust in many
applications. However, if numerical computation of derivative can be
trusted, other algorithms using the first and/or second derivatives
information might be preferred for their better performance in
general.
Method :ref:`Powell <optimize.minimize-powell>` is a modification
of Powell's method [3]_, [4]_ which is a conjugate direction
method. It performs sequential one-dimensional minimizations along
each vector of the directions set (`direc` field in `options` and
`info`), which is updated at each iteration of the main
minimization loop. The function need not be differentiable, and no
derivatives are taken.
Method :ref:`CG <optimize.minimize-cg>` uses a nonlinear conjugate
gradient algorithm by Polak and Ribiere, a variant of the
Fletcher-Reeves method described in [5]_ pp. 120-122. Only the
first derivatives are used.
Method :ref:`BFGS <optimize.minimize-bfgs>` uses the quasi-Newton
method of Broyden, Fletcher, Goldfarb, and Shanno (BFGS) [5]_
pp. 136. It uses the first derivatives only. BFGS has proven good
performance even for non-smooth optimizations. This method also
returns an approximation of the Hessian inverse, stored as
`hess_inv` in the OptimizeResult object.
Method :ref:`Newton-CG <optimize.minimize-newtoncg>` uses a
Newton-CG algorithm [5]_ pp. 168 (also known as the truncated
Newton method). It uses a CG method to the compute the search
direction. See also *TNC* method for a box-constrained
minimization with a similar algorithm. Suitable for large-scale
problems.
Method :ref:`dogleg <optimize.minimize-dogleg>` uses the dog-leg
trust-region algorithm [5]_ for unconstrained minimization. This
algorithm requires the gradient and Hessian; furthermore the
Hessian is required to be positive definite.
Method :ref:`trust-ncg <optimize.minimize-trustncg>` uses the
Newton conjugate gradient trust-region algorithm [5]_ for
unconstrained minimization. This algorithm requires the gradient
and either the Hessian or a function that computes the product of
the Hessian with a given vector. Suitable for large-scale problems.
Method :ref:`trust-exact <optimize.minimize-trustexact>`
is a trust-region method for unconstrained minimization in which
quadratic subproblems are solved almost exactly [13]_. This
algorithm requires the gradient and the Hessian (which is
*not* required to be positive definite). It is, in many
situations, the Newton method to converge in fewer iteraction
and the most recommended for small and medium-size problems.
**Constrained minimization**
Method :ref:`L-BFGS-B <optimize.minimize-lbfgsb>` uses the L-BFGS-B
algorithm [6]_, [7]_ for bound constrained minimization.
Method :ref:`TNC <optimize.minimize-tnc>` uses a truncated Newton
algorithm [5]_, [8]_ to minimize a function with variables subject
to bounds. This algorithm uses gradient information; it is also
called Newton Conjugate-Gradient. It differs from the *Newton-CG*
method described above as it wraps a C implementation and allows
each variable to be given upper and lower bounds.
Method :ref:`COBYLA <optimize.minimize-cobyla>` uses the
Constrained Optimization BY Linear Approximation (COBYLA) method
[9]_, [10]_, [11]_. The algorithm is based on linear
approximations to the objective function and each constraint. The
method wraps a FORTRAN implementation of the algorithm. The
constraints functions 'fun' may return either a single number
or an array or list of numbers.
Method :ref:`SLSQP <optimize.minimize-slsqp>` uses Sequential
Least SQuares Programming to minimize a function of several
variables with any combination of bounds, equality and inequality
constraints. The method wraps the SLSQP Optimization subroutine
originally implemented by Dieter Kraft [12]_. Note that the
wrapper handles infinite values in bounds by converting them into
large floating values.
**Custom minimizers**
It may be useful to pass a custom minimization method, for example
when using a frontend to this method such as `scipy.optimize.basinhopping`
or a different library. You can simply pass a callable as the ``method``
parameter.
The callable is called as ``method(fun, x0, args, **kwargs, **options)``
where ``kwargs`` corresponds to any other parameters passed to `minimize`
(such as `callback`, `hess`, etc.), except the `options` dict, which has
its contents also passed as `method` parameters pair by pair. Also, if
`jac` has been passed as a bool type, `jac` and `fun` are mangled so that
`fun` returns just the function values and `jac` is converted to a function
returning the Jacobian. The method shall return an ``OptimizeResult``
object.
The provided `method` callable must be able to accept (and possibly ignore)
arbitrary parameters; the set of parameters accepted by `minimize` may
expand in future versions and then these parameters will be passed to
the method. You can find an example in the scipy.optimize tutorial.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
References
----------
.. [1] Nelder, J A, and R Mead. 1965. A Simplex Method for Function
Minimization. The Computer Journal 7: 308-13.
.. [2] Wright M H. 1996. Direct search methods: Once scorned, now
respectable, in Numerical Analysis 1995: Proceedings of the 1995
Dundee Biennial Conference in Numerical Analysis (Eds. D F
Griffiths and G A Watson). Addison Wesley Longman, Harlow, UK.
191-208.
.. [3] Powell, M J D. 1964. An efficient method for finding the minimum of
a function of several variables without calculating derivatives. The
Computer Journal 7: 155-162.
.. [4] Press W, S A Teukolsky, W T Vetterling and B P Flannery.
Numerical Recipes (any edition), Cambridge University Press.
.. [5] Nocedal, J, and S J Wright. 2006. Numerical Optimization.
Springer New York.
.. [6] Byrd, R H and P Lu and J. Nocedal. 1995. A Limited Memory
Algorithm for Bound Constrained Optimization. SIAM Journal on
Scientific and Statistical Computing 16 (5): 1190-1208.
.. [7] Zhu, C and R H Byrd and J Nocedal. 1997. L-BFGS-B: Algorithm
778: L-BFGS-B, FORTRAN routines for large scale bound constrained
optimization. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software 23 (4):
550-560.
.. [8] Nash, S G. Newton-Type Minimization Via the Lanczos Method.
1984. SIAM Journal of Numerical Analysis 21: 770-778.
.. [9] Powell, M J D. A direct search optimization method that models
the objective and constraint functions by linear interpolation.
1994. Advances in Optimization and Numerical Analysis, eds. S. Gomez
and J-P Hennart, Kluwer Academic (Dordrecht), 51-67.
.. [10] Powell M J D. Direct search algorithms for optimization
calculations. 1998. Acta Numerica 7: 287-336.
.. [11] Powell M J D. A view of algorithms for optimization without
derivatives. 2007.Cambridge University Technical Report DAMTP
2007/NA03
.. [12] Kraft, D. A software package for sequential quadratic
programming. 1988. Tech. Rep. DFVLR-FB 88-28, DLR German Aerospace
Center -- Institute for Flight Mechanics, Koln, Germany.
.. [13] Conn, A. R., Gould, N. I., and Toint, P. L.
Trust region methods. 2000. Siam. pp. 169-200.
Examples
--------
Let us consider the problem of minimizing the Rosenbrock function. This
function (and its respective derivatives) is implemented in `rosen`
(resp. `rosen_der`, `rosen_hess`) in the `scipy.optimize`.
>>> from scipy.optimize import minimize, rosen, rosen_der
A simple application of the *Nelder-Mead* method is:
>>> x0 = [1.3, 0.7, 0.8, 1.9, 1.2]
>>> res = minimize(rosen, x0, method='Nelder-Mead', tol=1e-6)
>>> res.x
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
Now using the *BFGS* algorithm, using the first derivative and a few
options:
>>> res = minimize(rosen, x0, method='BFGS', jac=rosen_der,
... options={'gtol': 1e-6, 'disp': True})
Optimization terminated successfully.
Current function value: 0.000000
Iterations: 33
Function evaluations: 35
Gradient evaluations: 35
>>> res.x
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> print(res.message)
Optimization terminated successfully.
>>> res.hess_inv
array([[ 0.00749589, 0.01255155, 0.02396251, 0.04750988, 0.09495377], # may vary
[ 0.01255155, 0.02510441, 0.04794055, 0.09502834, 0.18996269],
[ 0.02396251, 0.04794055, 0.09631614, 0.19092151, 0.38165151],
[ 0.04750988, 0.09502834, 0.19092151, 0.38341252, 0.7664427 ],
[ 0.09495377, 0.18996269, 0.38165151, 0.7664427, 1.53713523]])
Next, consider a minimization problem with several constraints (namely
Example 16.4 from [5]_). The objective function is:
>>> fun = lambda x: (x[0] - 1)**2 + (x[1] - 2.5)**2
There are three constraints defined as:
>>> cons = ({'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: x[0] - 2 * x[1] + 2},
... {'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: -x[0] - 2 * x[1] + 6},
... {'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: -x[0] + 2 * x[1] + 2})
And variables must be positive, hence the following bounds:
>>> bnds = ((0, None), (0, None))
The optimization problem is solved using the SLSQP method as:
>>> res = minimize(fun, (2, 0), method='SLSQP', bounds=bnds,
... constraints=cons)
It should converge to the theoretical solution (1.4 ,1.7).
"""
x0 = np.asarray(x0)
if x0.dtype.kind in np.typecodes["AllInteger"]:
x0 = np.asarray(x0, dtype=float)
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args,)
if method is None:
# Select automatically
if constraints:
method = 'SLSQP'
elif bounds is not None:
method = 'L-BFGS-B'
else:
method = 'BFGS'
if callable(method):
meth = "_custom"
else:
meth = method.lower()
if options is None:
options = {}
# check if optional parameters are supported by the selected method
# - jac
if meth in ['nelder-mead', 'powell', 'cobyla'] and bool(jac):
warn('Method %s does not use gradient information (jac).' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - hess
if meth not in ('newton-cg', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg',
'trust-exact', '_custom') and hess is not None:
warn('Method %s does not use Hessian information (hess).' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - hessp
if meth not in ('newton-cg', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg', '_custom') and hessp is not None:
warn('Method %s does not use Hessian-vector product '
'information (hessp).' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - constraints or bounds
if (meth in ['nelder-mead', 'powell', 'cg', 'bfgs', 'newton-cg', 'dogleg',
'trust-ncg'] and (bounds is not None or np.any(constraints))):
warn('Method %s cannot handle constraints nor bounds.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
if meth in ['l-bfgs-b', 'tnc'] and np.any(constraints):
warn('Method %s cannot handle constraints.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
if meth == 'cobyla' and bounds is not None:
warn('Method %s cannot handle bounds.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - callback
if (meth in ['cobyla'] and callback is not None):
warn('Method %s does not support callback.' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - return_all
if (meth in ['l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'cobyla', 'slsqp'] and
options.get('return_all', False)):
warn('Method %s does not support the return_all option.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# fun also returns the jacobian
if not callable(jac):
if bool(jac):
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = None
# set default tolerances
if tol is not None:
options = dict(options)
if meth == 'nelder-mead':
options.setdefault('xatol', tol)
options.setdefault('fatol', tol)
if meth in ['newton-cg', 'powell', 'tnc']:
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
if meth in ['powell', 'l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'slsqp']:
options.setdefault('ftol', tol)
if meth in ['bfgs', 'cg', 'l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'dogleg',
'trust-ncg', 'trust-exact']:
options.setdefault('gtol', tol)
if meth in ['cobyla', '_custom']:
options.setdefault('tol', tol)
if meth == '_custom':
return method(fun, x0, args=args, jac=jac, hess=hess, hessp=hessp,
bounds=bounds, constraints=constraints,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'nelder-mead':
return _minimize_neldermead(fun, x0, args, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'powell':
return _minimize_powell(fun, x0, args, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'cg':
return _minimize_cg(fun, x0, args, jac, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'bfgs':
return _minimize_bfgs(fun, x0, args, jac, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'newton-cg':
return _minimize_newtoncg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp, callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'l-bfgs-b':
return _minimize_lbfgsb(fun, x0, args, jac, bounds,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'tnc':
return _minimize_tnc(fun, x0, args, jac, bounds, callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'cobyla':
return _minimize_cobyla(fun, x0, args, constraints, **options)
elif meth == 'slsqp':
return _minimize_slsqp(fun, x0, args, jac, bounds,
constraints, callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'dogleg':
return _minimize_dogleg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'trust-ncg':
return _minimize_trust_ncg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp,
callback=callback, **options)
elif meth == 'trust-exact':
return _minimize_trustregion_exact(fun, x0, args, jac, hess,
callback=callback, **options)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
class Rbf(object):
"""
Rbf(*args)
A class for radial basis function approximation/interpolation of
n-dimensional scattered data.
Parameters
----------
*args : arrays
x, y, z, ..., d, where x, y, z, ... are the coordinates of the nodes
and d is the array of values at the nodes
function : str or callable, optional
The radial basis function, based on the radius, r, given by the norm
(default is Euclidean distance); the default is 'multiquadric'::
'multiquadric': sqrt((r/self.epsilon)**2 + 1)
'inverse': 1.0/sqrt((r/self.epsilon)**2 + 1)
'gaussian': exp(-(r/self.epsilon)**2)
'linear': r
'cubic': r**3
'quintic': r**5
'thin_plate': r**2 * log(r)
If callable, then it must take 2 arguments (self, r). The epsilon
parameter will be available as self.epsilon. Other keyword
arguments passed in will be available as well.
epsilon : float, optional
Adjustable constant for gaussian or multiquadrics functions
- defaults to approximate average distance between nodes (which is
a good start).
smooth : float, optional
Values greater than zero increase the smoothness of the
approximation. 0 is for interpolation (default), the function will
always go through the nodal points in this case.
norm : callable, optional
A function that returns the 'distance' between two points, with
inputs as arrays of positions (x, y, z, ...), and an output as an
array of distance. E.g, the default::
def euclidean_norm(x1, x2):
return sqrt( ((x1 - x2)**2).sum(axis=0) )
which is called with x1=x1ndims,newaxis,:] and
x2=x2ndims,:,newaxis] such that the result is a matrix of the
distances from each point in x1 to each point in x2.
Examples
--------
>>> from scipy.interpolate import Rbf
>>> x, y, z, d = np.random.rand(4, 50)
>>> rbfi = Rbf(x, y, z, d) # radial basis function interpolator instance
>>> xi = yi = zi = np.linspace(0, 1, 20)
>>> di = rbfi(xi, yi, zi) # interpolated values
>>> di.shape
(20,)
"""
def _euclidean_norm(self, x1, x2):
return np.sqrt(((x1 - x2)**2).sum(axis=0))
def _h_multiquadric(self, r):
return np.sqrt((1.0/self.epsilon*r)**2 + 1)
def _h_inverse_multiquadric(self, r):
return 1.0/np.sqrt((1.0/self.epsilon*r)**2 + 1)
def _h_gaussian(self, r):
return np.exp(-(1.0/self.epsilon*r)**2)
def _h_linear(self, r):
return r
def _h_cubic(self, r):
return r**3
def _h_quintic(self, r):
return r**5
def _h_thin_plate(self, r):
return xlogy(r**2, r)
# Setup self._function and do smoke test on initial r
def _init_function(self, r):
if isinstance(self.function, str):
self.function = self.function.lower()
_mapped = {'inverse': 'inverse_multiquadric',
'inverse multiquadric': 'inverse_multiquadric',
'thin-plate': 'thin_plate'}
if self.function in _mapped:
self.function = _mappedself.function]
func_name = "_h_" + self.function
if hasattr(self, func_name):
self._function = getattr(self, func_name)
else:
functionlist = x3:] for x in dir(self) if x.startswith('_h_')]
raise ValueError("function must be a callable or one of " +
", ".join(functionlist))
self._function = getattr(self, "_h_"+self.function)
elif callable(self.function):
allow_one = False
if hasattr(self.function, 'func_code') or \
hasattr(self.function, '__code__'):
val = self.function
allow_one = True
elif hasattr(self.function, "im_func"):
val = get_method_function(self.function)
elif hasattr(self.function, "__call__"):
val = get_method_function(self.function.__call__)
else:
raise ValueError("Cannot determine number of arguments to function")
argcount = get_function_code(val).co_argcount
if allow_one and argcount == 1:
self._function = self.function
elif argcount == 2:
if sys.version_info0] >= 3:
self._function = self.function.__get__(self, Rbf)
else:
import new
self._function = new.instancemethod(self.function, self,
Rbf)
def binned_statistic_dd(sample, values, statistic='mean',
bins=10, range=None):
"""
Compute a multidimensional binned statistic for a set of data.
This is a generalization of a histogramdd function. A histogram divides
the space into bins, and returns the count of the number of points in
each bin. This function allows the computation of the sum, mean, median,
or other statistic of the values within each bin.
Parameters
----------
sample : array_like
Data to histogram passed as a sequence of D arrays of length N, or
as an (N,D) array.
values : array_like
The values on which the statistic will be computed. This must be
the same shape as x.
statistic : string or callable, optional
The statistic to compute (default is 'mean').
The following statistics are available:
* 'mean' : compute the mean of values for points within each bin.
Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'median' : compute the median of values for points within each
bin. Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'count' : compute the count of points within each bin. This is
identical to an unweighted histogram. `values` array is not
referenced.
* 'sum' : compute the sum of values for points within each bin.
This is identical to a weighted histogram.
* function : a user-defined function which takes a 1D array of
values, and outputs a single numerical statistic. This function
will be called on the values in each bin. Empty bins will be
represented by function([]), or NaN if this returns an error.
bins : sequence or int, optional
The bin specification:
* A sequence of arrays describing the bin edges along each dimension.
* The number of bins for each dimension (nx, ny, ... =bins)
* The number of bins for all dimensions (nx=ny=...=bins).
range : sequence, optional
A sequence of lower and upper bin edges to be used if the edges are
not given explicitely in `bins`. Defaults to the minimum and maximum
values along each dimension.
Returns
-------
statistic : ndarray, shape(nx1, nx2, nx3,...)
The values of the selected statistic in each two-dimensional bin
bin_edges : list of ndarrays
A list of D arrays describing the (nxi + 1) bin edges for each
dimension
binnumber : 1-D ndarray of ints
This assigns to each observation an integer that represents the bin
in which this observation falls. Array has the same length as values.
See Also
--------
np.histogramdd, binned_statistic, binned_statistic_2d
Notes
-----
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
"""
known_stats = ['mean', 'median', 'count', 'sum', 'std']
if not callable(statistic) and statistic not in known_stats:
raise ValueError('invalid statistic %r' % (statistic,))
# This code is based on np.histogramdd
try:
# Sample is an ND-array.
N, D = sample.shape
except (AttributeError, ValueError):
# Sample is a sequence of 1D arrays.
sample = np.atleast_2d(sample).T
N, D = sample.shape
nbin = np.empty(D, int)
edges = D * [None]
dedges = D * [None]
try:
M = len(bins)
if M != D:
raise AttributeError('The dimension of bins must be equal '
'to the dimension of the sample x.')
except TypeError:
bins = D * [bins]
# Select range for each dimension
# Used only if number of bins is given.
if range is None:
smin = np.atleast_1d(np.array(sample.min(0), float))
smax = np.atleast_1d(np.array(sample.max(0), float))
else:
smin = np.zeros(D)
smax = np.zeros(D)
for i in np.arange(D):
smin[i], smax[i] = range[i]
# Make sure the bins have a finite width.
for i in np.arange(len(smin)):
if smin[i] == smax[i]:
smin[i] = smin[i] - .5
smax[i] = smax[i] + .5
# Create edge arrays
for i in np.arange(D):
if np.isscalar(bins[i]):
nbin[i] = bins[i] + 2 # +2 for outlier bins
edges[i] = np.linspace(smin[i], smax[i], nbin[i] - 1)
else:
edges[i] = np.asarray(bins[i], float)
nbin[i] = len(edges[i]) + 1 # +1 for outlier bins
dedges[i] = np.diff(edges[i])
nbin = np.asarray(nbin)
# Compute the bin number each sample falls into.
Ncount = {}
for i in np.arange(D):
Ncount[i] = np.digitize(sample[:, i], edges[i])
# Using digitize, values that fall on an edge are put in the right bin.
# For the rightmost bin, we want values equal to the right
# edge to be counted in the last bin, and not as an outlier.
for i in np.arange(D):
# Rounding precision
decimal = int(-np.log10(dedges[i].min())) + 6
# Find which points are on the rightmost edge.
on_edge = np.where(np.around(sample[:, i], decimal)
== np.around(edges[i][-1], decimal))[0]
# Shift these points one bin to the left.
Ncount[i][on_edge] -= 1
# Compute the sample indices in the flattened statistic matrix.
ni = nbin.argsort()
xy = np.zeros(N, int)
for i in np.arange(0, D - 1):
xy += Ncount[ni[i]] * nbin[ni[i + 1:]].prod()
xy += Ncount[ni[-1]]
result = np.empty(nbin.prod(), float)
if statistic == 'mean':
result.fill(np.nan)
flatcount = np.bincount(xy, None)
flatsum = np.bincount(xy, values)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
result[a] = flatsum[a] / flatcount[a]
elif statistic == 'std':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(xy, None)
flatsum = np.bincount(xy, values)
flatsum2 = np.bincount(xy, values ** 2)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
result[a] = np.sqrt(flatsum2[a] / flatcount[a]
- (flatsum[a] / flatcount[a]) ** 2)
elif statistic == 'count':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(xy, None)
a = np.arange(len(flatcount))
result[a] = flatcount
elif statistic == 'sum':
result.fill(0)
flatsum = np.bincount(xy, values)
a = np.arange(len(flatsum))
result[a] = flatsum
elif statistic == 'median':
result.fill(np.nan)
for i in np.unique(xy):
result[i] = np.median(values[xy == i])
elif callable(statistic):
with warnings.catch_warnings():
# Numpy generates a warnings for mean/std/... with empty list
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore', category=RuntimeWarning)
old = np.seterr(invalid='ignore')
try:
null = statistic([])
except:
null = np.nan
np.seterr(**old)
result.fill(null)
for i in np.unique(xy):
result[i] = statistic(values[xy == i])
# Shape into a proper matrix
result = result.reshape(np.sort(nbin))
for i in np.arange(nbin.size):
j = ni.argsort()[i]
result = result.swapaxes(i, j)
ni[i], ni[j] = ni[j], ni[i]
# Remove outliers (indices 0 and -1 for each dimension).
core = D * [slice(1, -1)]
result = result[core]
if (result.shape != nbin - 2).any():
raise RuntimeError('Internal Shape Error')
return BinnedStatisticddResult(result, edges, xy)
def schur(a, output='real', lwork=None, overwrite_a=False, sort=None,
check_finite=True):
"""
Compute Schur decomposition of a matrix.
The Schur decomposition is::
A = Z T Z^H
where Z is unitary and T is either upper-triangular, or for real
Schur decomposition (output='real'), quasi-upper triangular. In
the quasi-triangular form, 2x2 blocks describing complex-valued
eigenvalue pairs may extrude from the diagonal.
Parameters
----------
a : (M, M) array_like
Matrix to decompose
output : {'real', 'complex'}, optional
Construct the real or complex Schur decomposition (for real matrices).
lwork : int, optional
Work array size. If None or -1, it is automatically computed.
overwrite_a : bool, optional
Whether to overwrite data in a (may improve performance).
sort : {None, callable, 'lhp', 'rhp', 'iuc', 'ouc'}, optional
Specifies whether the upper eigenvalues should be sorted. A callable
may be passed that, given a eigenvalue, returns a boolean denoting
whether the eigenvalue should be sorted to the top-left (True).
Alternatively, string parameters may be used::
'lhp' Left-hand plane (x.real < 0.0)
'rhp' Right-hand plane (x.real > 0.0)
'iuc' Inside the unit circle (x*x.conjugate() <= 1.0)
'ouc' Outside the unit circle (x*x.conjugate() > 1.0)
Defaults to None (no sorting).
check_finite : boolean, optional
Whether to check that the input matrix contains only finite numbers.
Disabling may give a performance gain, but may result in problems
(crashes, non-termination) if the inputs do contain infinities or NaNs.
Returns
-------
T : (M, M) ndarray
Schur form of A. It is real-valued for the real Schur decomposition.
Z : (M, M) ndarray
An unitary Schur transformation matrix for A.
It is real-valued for the real Schur decomposition.
sdim : int
If and only if sorting was requested, a third return value will
contain the number of eigenvalues satisfying the sort condition.
Raises
------
LinAlgError
Error raised under three conditions:
1. The algorithm failed due to a failure of the QR algorithm to
compute all eigenvalues
2. If eigenvalue sorting was requested, the eigenvalues could not be
reordered due to a failure to separate eigenvalues, usually because
of poor conditioning
3. If eigenvalue sorting was requested, roundoff errors caused the
leading eigenvalues to no longer satisfy the sorting condition
See also
--------
rsf2csf : Convert real Schur form to complex Schur form
"""
if output not in ['real','complex','r','c']:
raise ValueError("argument must be 'real', or 'complex'")
if check_finite:
a1 = asarray_chkfinite(a)
else:
a1 = asarray(a)
if len(a1.shape) != 2 or (a1.shape[0] != a1.shape[1]):
raise ValueError('expected square matrix')
typ = a1.dtype.char
if output in ['complex','c'] and typ not in ['F','D']:
if typ in _double_precision:
a1 = a1.astype('D')
typ = 'D'
else:
a1 = a1.astype('F')
typ = 'F'
overwrite_a = overwrite_a or (_datacopied(a1, a))
gees, = get_lapack_funcs(('gees',), (a1,))
if lwork is None or lwork == -1:
# get optimal work array
result = gees(lambda x: None, a1, lwork=-1)
lwork = result[-2][0].real.astype(numpy.int)
if sort is None:
sort_t = 0
sfunction = lambda x: None
else:
sort_t = 1
if callable(sort):
sfunction = sort
elif sort == 'lhp':
sfunction = lambda x: (numpy.real(x) < 0.0)
elif sort == 'rhp':
sfunction = lambda x: (numpy.real(x) >= 0.0)
elif sort == 'iuc':
sfunction = lambda x: (abs(x) <= 1.0)
elif sort == 'ouc':
sfunction = lambda x: (abs(x) > 1.0)
else:
raise ValueError("sort parameter must be None, a callable, or " +
"one of ('lhp','rhp','iuc','ouc')")
result = gees(sfunction, a1, lwork=lwork, overwrite_a=overwrite_a,
sort_t=sort_t)
info = result[-1]
if info < 0:
raise ValueError('illegal value in %d-th argument of internal gees'
% -info)
elif info == a1.shape[0] + 1:
raise LinAlgError('Eigenvalues could not be separated for reordering.')
elif info == a1.shape[0] + 2:
raise LinAlgError('Leading eigenvalues do not satisfy sort condition.')
elif info > 0:
raise LinAlgError("Schur form not found. Possibly ill-conditioned.")
if sort_t == 0:
return result[0], result[-3]
else:
return result[0], result[-3], result[1]
def fmin_cobyla(func, x0, cons, args=(), consargs=None, rhobeg=1.0,
rhoend=1e-4, iprint=1, maxfun=1000, disp=None, catol=2e-4):
"""
Minimize a function using the Constrained Optimization BY Linear
Approximation (COBYLA) method. This method wraps a FORTRAN
implementation of the algorithm.
Parameters
----------
func : callable
Function to minimize. In the form func(x, \\*args).
x0 : ndarray
Initial guess.
cons : sequence
Constraint functions; must all be ``>=0`` (a single function
if only 1 constraint). Each function takes the parameters `x`
as its first argument, and it can return either a single number or
an array or list of numbers.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments to pass to function.
consargs : tuple, optional
Extra arguments to pass to constraint functions (default of None means
use same extra arguments as those passed to func).
Use ``()`` for no extra arguments.
rhobeg : float, optional
Reasonable initial changes to the variables.
rhoend : float, optional
Final accuracy in the optimization (not precisely guaranteed). This
is a lower bound on the size of the trust region.
iprint : {0, 1, 2, 3}, optional
Controls the frequency of output; 0 implies no output. Deprecated.
disp : {0, 1, 2, 3}, optional
Over-rides the iprint interface. Preferred.
maxfun : int, optional
Maximum number of function evaluations.
catol : float, optional
Absolute tolerance for constraint violations.
Returns
-------
x : ndarray
The argument that minimises `f`.
See also
--------
minimize: Interface to minimization algorithms for multivariate
functions. See the 'COBYLA' `method` in particular.
Notes
-----
This algorithm is based on linear approximations to the objective
function and each constraint. We briefly describe the algorithm.
Suppose the function is being minimized over k variables. At the
jth iteration the algorithm has k+1 points v_1, ..., v_(k+1),
an approximate solution x_j, and a radius RHO_j.
(i.e. linear plus a constant) approximations to the objective
function and constraint functions such that their function values
agree with the linear approximation on the k+1 points v_1,.., v_(k+1).
This gives a linear program to solve (where the linear approximations
of the constraint functions are constrained to be non-negative).
However the linear approximations are likely only good
approximations near the current simplex, so the linear program is
given the further requirement that the solution, which
will become x_(j+1), must be within RHO_j from x_j. RHO_j only
decreases, never increases. The initial RHO_j is rhobeg and the
final RHO_j is rhoend. In this way COBYLA's iterations behave
like a trust region algorithm.
Additionally, the linear program may be inconsistent, or the
approximation may give poor improvement. For details about
how these issues are resolved, as well as how the points v_i are
updated, refer to the source code or the references below.
References
----------
Powell M.J.D. (1994), "A direct search optimization method that models
the objective and constraint functions by linear interpolation.", in
Advances in Optimization and Numerical Analysis, eds. S. Gomez and
J-P Hennart, Kluwer Academic (Dordrecht), pp. 51-67
Powell M.J.D. (1998), "Direct search algorithms for optimization
calculations", Acta Numerica 7, 287-336
Powell M.J.D. (2007), "A view of algorithms for optimization without
derivatives", Cambridge University Technical Report DAMTP 2007/NA03
Examples
--------
Minimize the objective function f(x,y) = x*y subject
to the constraints x**2 + y**2 < 1 and y > 0::
>>> def objective(x):
... return x[0]*x[1]
...
>>> def constr1(x):
... return 1 - (x[0]**2 + x[1]**2)
...
>>> def constr2(x):
... return x[1]
...
>>> from scipy.optimize import fmin_cobyla
>>> fmin_cobyla(objective, [0.0, 0.1], [constr1, constr2], rhoend=1e-7)
array([-0.70710685, 0.70710671])
The exact solution is (-sqrt(2)/2, sqrt(2)/2).
"""
err = "cons must be a sequence of callable functions or a single"\
" callable function."
try:
len(cons)
except TypeError:
if callable(cons):
cons = [cons]
else:
raise TypeError(err)
else:
for thisfunc in cons:
if not callable(thisfunc):
raise TypeError(err)
if consargs is None:
consargs = args
# build constraints
con = tuple({'type': 'ineq', 'fun': c, 'args': consargs} for c in cons)
# options
if disp is not None:
iprint = disp
opts = {'rhobeg': rhobeg,
'tol': rhoend,
'iprint': iprint,
'disp': iprint != 0,
'maxiter': maxfun,
'catol': catol}
sol = _minimize_cobyla(func, x0, args, constraints=con,
**opts)
if iprint > 0 and not sol['success']:
print("COBYLA failed to find a solution: %s" % (sol.message,))
return sol['x']
def binned_statistic_dd(sample, values, statistic='mean', bins=10, range=None):
"""
Compute a multidimensional binned statistic for a set of data.
This is a generalization of a histogramdd function. A histogram divides
the space into bins, and returns the count of the number of points in
each bin. This function allows the computation of the sum, mean, median,
or other statistic of the values within each bin.
Parameters
----------
sample : array_like
Data to histogram passed as a sequence of D arrays of length N, or
as an (N,D) array.
values : array_like
The values on which the statistic will be computed. This must be
the same shape as x.
statistic : string or callable, optional
The statistic to compute (default is 'mean').
The following statistics are available:
* 'mean' : compute the mean of values for points within each bin.
Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'median' : compute the median of values for points within each
bin. Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'count' : compute the count of points within each bin. This is
identical to an unweighted histogram. `values` array is not
referenced.
* 'sum' : compute the sum of values for points within each bin.
This is identical to a weighted histogram.
* function : a user-defined function which takes a 1D array of
values, and outputs a single numerical statistic. This function
will be called on the values in each bin. Empty bins will be
represented by function([]), or NaN if this returns an error.
bins : sequence or int, optional
The bin specification:
* A sequence of arrays describing the bin edges along each dimension.
* The number of bins for each dimension (nx, ny, ... =bins)
* The number of bins for all dimensions (nx=ny=...=bins).
range : sequence, optional
A sequence of lower and upper bin edges to be used if the edges are
not given explicitely in `bins`. Defaults to the minimum and maximum
values along each dimension.
Returns
-------
statistic : ndarray, shape(nx1, nx2, nx3,...)
The values of the selected statistic in each two-dimensional bin
edges : list of ndarrays
A list of D arrays describing the (nxi + 1) bin edges for each
dimension
binnumber : 1-D ndarray of ints
This assigns to each observation an integer that represents the bin
in which this observation falls. Array has the same length as values.
See Also
--------
np.histogramdd, binned_statistic, binned_statistic_2d
Notes
-----
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
"""
if type(statistic) == str:
if statistic not in ['mean', 'median', 'count', 'sum', 'std']:
raise ValueError('unrecognized statistic "%s"' % statistic)
elif callable(statistic):
pass
else:
raise ValueError("statistic not understood")
# This code is based on np.histogramdd
try:
# Sample is an ND-array.
N, D = sample.shape
except (AttributeError, ValueError):
# Sample is a sequence of 1D arrays.
sample = np.atleast_2d(sample).T
N, D = sample.shape
nbin = np.empty(D, int)
edges = D * [None]
dedges = D * [None]
try:
M = len(bins)
if M != D:
raise AttributeError('The dimension of bins must be equal '
'to the dimension of the sample x.')
except TypeError:
bins = D * [bins]
# Select range for each dimension
# Used only if number of bins is given.
if range is None:
smin = np.atleast_1d(np.array(sample.min(0), float))
smax = np.atleast_1d(np.array(sample.max(0), float))
else:
smin = np.zeros(D)
smax = np.zeros(D)
for i in np.arange(D):
smin[i], smax[i] = range[i]
# Make sure the bins have a finite width.
for i in np.arange(len(smin)):
if smin[i] == smax[i]:
smin[i] = smin[i] - .5
smax[i] = smax[i] + .5
# Create edge arrays
for i in np.arange(D):
if np.isscalar(bins[i]):
nbin[i] = bins[i] + 2 # +2 for outlier bins
edges[i] = np.linspace(smin[i], smax[i], nbin[i] - 1)
else:
edges[i] = np.asarray(bins[i], float)
nbin[i] = len(edges[i]) + 1 # +1 for outlier bins
dedges[i] = np.diff(edges[i])
nbin = np.asarray(nbin)
# Compute the bin number each sample falls into.
Ncount = {}
for i in np.arange(D):
Ncount[i] = np.digitize(sample[:, i], edges[i])
# Using digitize, values that fall on an edge are put in the right bin.
# For the rightmost bin, we want values equal to the right
# edge to be counted in the last bin, and not as an outlier.
for i in np.arange(D):
# Rounding precision
decimal = int(-np.log10(dedges[i].min())) + 6
# Find which points are on the rightmost edge.
on_edge = np.where(
np.around(sample[:, i], decimal) == np.around(
edges[i][-1], decimal))[0]
# Shift these points one bin to the left.
Ncount[i][on_edge] -= 1
# Compute the sample indices in the flattened statistic matrix.
ni = nbin.argsort()
xy = np.zeros(N, int)
for i in np.arange(0, D - 1):
xy += Ncount[ni[i]] * nbin[ni[i + 1:]].prod()
xy += Ncount[ni[-1]]
result = np.empty(nbin.prod(), float)
if statistic == 'mean':
result.fill(np.nan)
flatcount = np.bincount(xy, None)
flatsum = np.bincount(xy, values)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
result[a] = flatsum[a] / flatcount[a]
elif statistic == 'std':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(xy, None)
flatsum = np.bincount(xy, values)
flatsum2 = np.bincount(xy, values**2)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
result[a] = np.sqrt(flatsum2[a] / flatcount[a] -
(flatsum[a] / flatcount[a])**2)
elif statistic == 'count':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(xy, None)
a = np.arange(len(flatcount))
result[a] = flatcount
elif statistic == 'sum':
result.fill(0)
flatsum = np.bincount(xy, values)
a = np.arange(len(flatsum))
result[a] = flatsum
elif statistic == 'median':
result.fill(np.nan)
for i in np.unique(xy):
result[i] = np.median(values[xy == i])
elif callable(statistic):
with warnings.catch_warnings():
# Numpy generates a warnings for mean/std/... with empty list
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore', category=RuntimeWarning)
old = np.seterr(invalid='ignore')
try:
null = statistic([])
except:
null = np.nan
np.seterr(**old)
result.fill(null)
for i in np.unique(xy):
result[i] = statistic(values[xy == i])
# Shape into a proper matrix
result = result.reshape(np.sort(nbin))
for i in np.arange(nbin.size):
j = ni.argsort()[i]
result = result.swapaxes(i, j)
ni[i], ni[j] = ni[j], ni[i]
# Remove outliers (indices 0 and -1 for each dimension).
core = D * [slice(1, -1)]
result = result[core]
if (result.shape != nbin - 2).any():
raise RuntimeError('Internal Shape Error')
return result, edges, xy
def asjacobian(J):
"""
Convert given object to one suitable for use as a Jacobian.
"""
spsolve = scipy.sparse.linalg.spsolve
if isinstance(J, Jacobian):
return J
elif inspect.isclass(J) and issubclass(J, Jacobian):
return J()
elif isinstance(J, np.ndarray):
if J.ndim > 2:
raise ValueError('array must have rank <= 2')
J = np.atleast_2d(np.asarray(J))
if J.shape[0] != J.shape[1]:
raise ValueError('array must be square')
return Jacobian(matvec=lambda v: dot(J, v),
rmatvec=lambda v: dot(J.conj().T, v),
solve=lambda v: solve(J, v),
rsolve=lambda v: solve(J.conj().T, v),
dtype=J.dtype, shape=J.shape)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(J):
if J.shape[0] != J.shape[1]:
raise ValueError('matrix must be square')
return Jacobian(matvec=lambda v: J*v,
rmatvec=lambda v: J.conj().T * v,
solve=lambda v: spsolve(J, v),
rsolve=lambda v: spsolve(J.conj().T, v),
dtype=J.dtype, shape=J.shape)
elif hasattr(J, 'shape') and hasattr(J, 'dtype') and hasattr(J, 'solve'):
return Jacobian(matvec=getattr(J, 'matvec'),
rmatvec=getattr(J, 'rmatvec'),
solve=J.solve,
rsolve=getattr(J, 'rsolve'),
update=getattr(J, 'update'),
setup=getattr(J, 'setup'),
dtype=J.dtype,
shape=J.shape)
elif callable(J):
# Assume it's a function J(x) that returns the Jacobian
class Jac(Jacobian):
def update(self, x, F):
self.x = x
def solve(self, v, tol=0):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return solve(m, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return spsolve(m, v)
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
def matvec(self, v):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return dot(m, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return m*v
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
def rsolve(self, v, tol=0):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return solve(m.conj().T, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return spsolve(m.conj().T, v)
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
def rmatvec(self, v):
m = J(self.x)
if isinstance(m, np.ndarray):
return dot(m.conj().T, v)
elif scipy.sparse.isspmatrix(m):
return m.conj().T * v
else:
raise ValueError("Unknown matrix type")
return Jac()
elif isinstance(J, str):
return dict(broyden1=BroydenFirst,
broyden2=BroydenSecond,
anderson=Anderson,
diagbroyden=DiagBroyden,
linearmixing=LinearMixing,
excitingmixing=ExcitingMixing,
krylov=KrylovJacobian)[J]()
else:
raise TypeError('Cannot convert object to a Jacobian')
def minimize(fun,
x0,
args=(),
method=None,
jac=None,
hess=None,
hessp=None,
bounds=None,
constraints=(),
tol=None,
callback=None,
options=None):
"""Minimization of scalar function of one or more variables.
Parameters
----------
fun : callable
The objective function to be minimized.
``fun(x, *args) -> float``
where x is an 1-D array with shape (n,) and `args`
is a tuple of the fixed parameters needed to completely
specify the function.
x0 : ndarray, shape (n,)
Initial guess. Array of real elements of size (n,),
where 'n' is the number of independent variables.
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments passed to the objective function and its
derivatives (`fun`, `jac` and `hess` functions).
method : str or callable, optional
Type of solver. Should be one of
- 'Nelder-Mead' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-neldermead>`
- 'Powell' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-powell>`
- 'CG' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-cg>`
- 'BFGS' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-bfgs>`
- 'Newton-CG' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-newtoncg>`
- 'L-BFGS-B' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-lbfgsb>`
- 'TNC' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-tnc>`
- 'COBYLA' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-cobyla>`
- 'SLSQP' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-slsqp>`
- 'trust-constr':ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustconstr>`
- 'dogleg' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-dogleg>`
- 'trust-ncg' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustncg>`
- 'trust-exact' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustexact>`
- 'trust-krylov' :ref:`(see here) <optimize.minimize-trustkrylov>`
- custom - a callable object (added in version 0.14.0),
see below for description.
If not given, chosen to be one of ``BFGS``, ``L-BFGS-B``, ``SLSQP``,
depending if the problem has constraints or bounds.
jac : {callable, '2-point', '3-point', 'cs', bool}, optional
Method for computing the gradient vector. Only for CG, BFGS,
Newton-CG, L-BFGS-B, TNC, SLSQP, dogleg, trust-ncg, trust-krylov,
trust-exact and trust-constr. If it is a callable, it should be a
function that returns the gradient vector:
``jac(x, *args) -> array_like, shape (n,)``
where x is an array with shape (n,) and `args` is a tuple with
the fixed parameters. Alternatively, the keywords
{'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} select a finite
difference scheme for numerical estimation of the gradient. Options
'3-point' and 'cs' are available only to 'trust-constr'.
If `jac` is a Boolean and is True, `fun` is assumed to return the
gradient along with the objective function. If False, the gradient
will be estimated using '2-point' finite difference estimation.
hess : {callable, '2-point', '3-point', 'cs', HessianUpdateStrategy}, optional
Method for computing the Hessian matrix. Only for Newton-CG, dogleg,
trust-ncg, trust-krylov, trust-exact and trust-constr. If it is
callable, it should return the Hessian matrix:
``hess(x, *args) -> {LinearOperator, spmatrix, array}, (n, n)``
where x is a (n,) ndarray and `args` is a tuple with the fixed
parameters. LinearOperator and sparse matrix returns are
allowed only for 'trust-constr' method. Alternatively, the keywords
{'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} select a finite difference scheme
for numerical estimation. Or, objects implementing
`HessianUpdateStrategy` interface can be used to approximate
the Hessian. Available quasi-Newton methods implementing
this interface are:
- `BFGS`;
- `SR1`.
Whenever the gradient is estimated via finite-differences,
the Hessian cannot be estimated with options
{'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} and needs to be
estimated using one of the quasi-Newton strategies.
Finite-difference options {'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'} and
`HessianUpdateStrategy` are available only for 'trust-constr' method.
hessp : callable, optional
Hessian of objective function times an arbitrary vector p. Only for
Newton-CG, trust-ncg, trust-krylov, trust-constr.
Only one of `hessp` or `hess` needs to be given. If `hess` is
provided, then `hessp` will be ignored. `hessp` must compute the
Hessian times an arbitrary vector:
``hessp(x, p, *args) -> ndarray shape (n,)``
where x is a (n,) ndarray, p is an arbitrary vector with
dimension (n,) and `args` is a tuple with the fixed
parameters.
bounds : sequence or `Bounds`, optional
Bounds on variables for L-BFGS-B, TNC, SLSQP and
trust-constr methods. There are two ways to specify the bounds:
1. Instance of `Bounds` class.
2. Sequence of ``(min, max)`` pairs for each element in `x`. None
is used to specify no bound.
constraints : {Constraint, dict} or List of {Constraint, dict}, optional
Constraints definition (only for COBYLA, SLSQP and trust-constr).
Constraints for 'trust-constr' are defined as a single object or a
list of objects specifying constraints to the optimization problem.
Available constraints are:
- `LinearConstraint`
- `NonlinearConstraint`
Constraints for COBYLA, SLSQP are defined as a list of dictionaries.
Each dictionary with fields:
type : str
Constraint type: 'eq' for equality, 'ineq' for inequality.
fun : callable
The function defining the constraint.
jac : callable, optional
The Jacobian of `fun` (only for SLSQP).
args : sequence, optional
Extra arguments to be passed to the function and Jacobian.
Equality constraint means that the constraint function result is to
be zero whereas inequality means that it is to be non-negative.
Note that COBYLA only supports inequality constraints.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance for termination. For detailed control, use solver-specific
options.
options : dict, optional
A dictionary of solver options. All methods accept the following
generic options:
maxiter : int
Maximum number of iterations to perform.
disp : bool
Set to True to print convergence messages.
For method-specific options, see :func:`show_options()`.
callback : callable, optional
Called after each iteration. For 'trust-constr' it is a callable with
the signature:
``callback(xk, OptimizeResult state) -> bool``
where ``xk`` is the current parameter vector. and ``state``
is an `OptimizeResult` object, with the same fields
as the ones from the return. If callback returns True
the algorithm execution is terminated.
For all the other methods, the signature is:
``callback(xk)``
where ``xk`` is the current parameter vector.
Returns
-------
res : OptimizeResult
The optimization result represented as a ``OptimizeResult`` object.
Important attributes are: ``x`` the solution array, ``success`` a
Boolean flag indicating if the optimizer exited successfully and
``message`` which describes the cause of the termination. See
`OptimizeResult` for a description of other attributes.
See also
--------
minimize_scalar : Interface to minimization algorithms for scalar
univariate functions
show_options : Additional options accepted by the solvers
Notes
-----
This section describes the available solvers that can be selected by the
'method' parameter. The default method is *BFGS*.
**Unconstrained minimization**
Method :ref:`Nelder-Mead <optimize.minimize-neldermead>` uses the
Simplex algorithm [1]_, [2]_. This algorithm is robust in many
applications. However, if numerical computation of derivative can be
trusted, other algorithms using the first and/or second derivatives
information might be preferred for their better performance in
general.
Method :ref:`Powell <optimize.minimize-powell>` is a modification
of Powell's method [3]_, [4]_ which is a conjugate direction
method. It performs sequential one-dimensional minimizations along
each vector of the directions set (`direc` field in `options` and
`info`), which is updated at each iteration of the main
minimization loop. The function need not be differentiable, and no
derivatives are taken.
Method :ref:`CG <optimize.minimize-cg>` uses a nonlinear conjugate
gradient algorithm by Polak and Ribiere, a variant of the
Fletcher-Reeves method described in [5]_ pp. 120-122. Only the
first derivatives are used.
Method :ref:`BFGS <optimize.minimize-bfgs>` uses the quasi-Newton
method of Broyden, Fletcher, Goldfarb, and Shanno (BFGS) [5]_
pp. 136. It uses the first derivatives only. BFGS has proven good
performance even for non-smooth optimizations. This method also
returns an approximation of the Hessian inverse, stored as
`hess_inv` in the OptimizeResult object.
Method :ref:`Newton-CG <optimize.minimize-newtoncg>` uses a
Newton-CG algorithm [5]_ pp. 168 (also known as the truncated
Newton method). It uses a CG method to the compute the search
direction. See also *TNC* method for a box-constrained
minimization with a similar algorithm. Suitable for large-scale
problems.
Method :ref:`dogleg <optimize.minimize-dogleg>` uses the dog-leg
trust-region algorithm [5]_ for unconstrained minimization. This
algorithm requires the gradient and Hessian; furthermore the
Hessian is required to be positive definite.
Method :ref:`trust-ncg <optimize.minimize-trustncg>` uses the
Newton conjugate gradient trust-region algorithm [5]_ for
unconstrained minimization. This algorithm requires the gradient
and either the Hessian or a function that computes the product of
the Hessian with a given vector. Suitable for large-scale problems.
Method :ref:`trust-krylov <optimize.minimize-trustkrylov>` uses
the Newton GLTR trust-region algorithm [14]_, [15]_ for unconstrained
minimization. This algorithm requires the gradient
and either the Hessian or a function that computes the product of
the Hessian with a given vector. Suitable for large-scale problems.
On indefinite problems it requires usually less iterations than the
`trust-ncg` method and is recommended for medium and large-scale problems.
Method :ref:`trust-exact <optimize.minimize-trustexact>`
is a trust-region method for unconstrained minimization in which
quadratic subproblems are solved almost exactly [13]_. This
algorithm requires the gradient and the Hessian (which is
*not* required to be positive definite). It is, in many
situations, the Newton method to converge in fewer iteraction
and the most recommended for small and medium-size problems.
**Bound-Constrained minimization**
Method :ref:`L-BFGS-B <optimize.minimize-lbfgsb>` uses the L-BFGS-B
algorithm [6]_, [7]_ for bound constrained minimization.
Method :ref:`TNC <optimize.minimize-tnc>` uses a truncated Newton
algorithm [5]_, [8]_ to minimize a function with variables subject
to bounds. This algorithm uses gradient information; it is also
called Newton Conjugate-Gradient. It differs from the *Newton-CG*
method described above as it wraps a C implementation and allows
each variable to be given upper and lower bounds.
**Constrained Minimization**
Method :ref:`COBYLA <optimize.minimize-cobyla>` uses the
Constrained Optimization BY Linear Approximation (COBYLA) method
[9]_, [10]_, [11]_. The algorithm is based on linear
approximations to the objective function and each constraint. The
method wraps a FORTRAN implementation of the algorithm. The
constraints functions 'fun' may return either a single number
or an array or list of numbers.
Method :ref:`SLSQP <optimize.minimize-slsqp>` uses Sequential
Least SQuares Programming to minimize a function of several
variables with any combination of bounds, equality and inequality
constraints. The method wraps the SLSQP Optimization subroutine
originally implemented by Dieter Kraft [12]_. Note that the
wrapper handles infinite values in bounds by converting them into
large floating values.
Method :ref:`trust-constr <optimize.minimize-trustconstr>` is a
trust-region algorithm for constrained optimization. It swiches
between two implementations depending on the problem definition.
It is the most versatile constrained minimization algorithm
implemented in SciPy and the most appropriate for large-scale problems.
For equality constrained problems it is an implementation of Byrd-Omojokun
Trust-Region SQP method described in [17]_ and in [5]_, p. 549. When
inequality constraints are imposed as well, it swiches to the trust-region
interior point method described in [16]_. This interior point algorithm,
in turn, solves inequality constraints by introducing slack variables
and solving a sequence of equality-constrained barrier problems
for progressively smaller values of the barrier parameter.
The previously described equality constrained SQP method is
used to solve the subproblems with increasing levels of accuracy
as the iterate gets closer to a solution.
**Finite-Difference Options**
For Method :ref:`trust-constr <optimize.minimize-trustconstr>`
the gradient and the Hessian may be approximated using
three finite-difference schemes: {'2-point', '3-point', 'cs'}.
The scheme 'cs' is, potentially, the most accurate but it
requires the function to correctly handles complex inputs and to
be differentiable in the complex plane. The scheme '3-point' is more
accurate than '2-point' but requires twice as much operations.
**Custom minimizers**
It may be useful to pass a custom minimization method, for example
when using a frontend to this method such as `scipy.optimize.basinhopping`
or a different library. You can simply pass a callable as the ``method``
parameter.
The callable is called as ``method(fun, x0, args, **kwargs, **options)``
where ``kwargs`` corresponds to any other parameters passed to `minimize`
(such as `callback`, `hess`, etc.), except the `options` dict, which has
its contents also passed as `method` parameters pair by pair. Also, if
`jac` has been passed as a bool type, `jac` and `fun` are mangled so that
`fun` returns just the function values and `jac` is converted to a function
returning the Jacobian. The method shall return an `OptimizeResult`
object.
The provided `method` callable must be able to accept (and possibly ignore)
arbitrary parameters; the set of parameters accepted by `minimize` may
expand in future versions and then these parameters will be passed to
the method. You can find an example in the scipy.optimize tutorial.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
References
----------
.. [1] Nelder, J A, and R Mead. 1965. A Simplex Method for Function
Minimization. The Computer Journal 7: 308-13.
.. [2] Wright M H. 1996. Direct search methods: Once scorned, now
respectable, in Numerical Analysis 1995: Proceedings of the 1995
Dundee Biennial Conference in Numerical Analysis (Eds. D F
Griffiths and G A Watson). Addison Wesley Longman, Harlow, UK.
191-208.
.. [3] Powell, M J D. 1964. An efficient method for finding the minimum of
a function of several variables without calculating derivatives. The
Computer Journal 7: 155-162.
.. [4] Press W, S A Teukolsky, W T Vetterling and B P Flannery.
Numerical Recipes (any edition), Cambridge University Press.
.. [5] Nocedal, J, and S J Wright. 2006. Numerical Optimization.
Springer New York.
.. [6] Byrd, R H and P Lu and J. Nocedal. 1995. A Limited Memory
Algorithm for Bound Constrained Optimization. SIAM Journal on
Scientific and Statistical Computing 16 (5): 1190-1208.
.. [7] Zhu, C and R H Byrd and J Nocedal. 1997. L-BFGS-B: Algorithm
778: L-BFGS-B, FORTRAN routines for large scale bound constrained
optimization. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software 23 (4):
550-560.
.. [8] Nash, S G. Newton-Type Minimization Via the Lanczos Method.
1984. SIAM Journal of Numerical Analysis 21: 770-778.
.. [9] Powell, M J D. A direct search optimization method that models
the objective and constraint functions by linear interpolation.
1994. Advances in Optimization and Numerical Analysis, eds. S. Gomez
and J-P Hennart, Kluwer Academic (Dordrecht), 51-67.
.. [10] Powell M J D. Direct search algorithms for optimization
calculations. 1998. Acta Numerica 7: 287-336.
.. [11] Powell M J D. A view of algorithms for optimization without
derivatives. 2007.Cambridge University Technical Report DAMTP
2007/NA03
.. [12] Kraft, D. A software package for sequential quadratic
programming. 1988. Tech. Rep. DFVLR-FB 88-28, DLR German Aerospace
Center -- Institute for Flight Mechanics, Koln, Germany.
.. [13] Conn, A. R., Gould, N. I., and Toint, P. L.
Trust region methods. 2000. Siam. pp. 169-200.
.. [14] F. Lenders, C. Kirches, A. Potschka: "trlib: A vector-free
implementation of the GLTR method for iterative solution of
the trust region problem", https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.04718
.. [15] N. Gould, S. Lucidi, M. Roma, P. Toint: "Solving the
Trust-Region Subproblem using the Lanczos Method",
SIAM J. Optim., 9(2), 504--525, (1999).
.. [16] Byrd, Richard H., Mary E. Hribar, and Jorge Nocedal. 1999.
An interior point algorithm for large-scale nonlinear programming.
SIAM Journal on Optimization 9.4: 877-900.
.. [17] Lalee, Marucha, Jorge Nocedal, and Todd Plantega. 1998. On the
implementation of an algorithm for large-scale equality constrained
optimization. SIAM Journal on Optimization 8.3: 682-706.
Examples
--------
Let us consider the problem of minimizing the Rosenbrock function. This
function (and its respective derivatives) is implemented in `rosen`
(resp. `rosen_der`, `rosen_hess`) in the `scipy.optimize`.
>>> from scipy.optimize import minimize, rosen, rosen_der
A simple application of the *Nelder-Mead* method is:
>>> x0 = [1.3, 0.7, 0.8, 1.9, 1.2]
>>> res = minimize(rosen, x0, method='Nelder-Mead', tol=1e-6)
>>> res.x
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
Now using the *BFGS* algorithm, using the first derivative and a few
options:
>>> res = minimize(rosen, x0, method='BFGS', jac=rosen_der,
... options={'gtol': 1e-6, 'disp': True})
Optimization terminated successfully.
Current function value: 0.000000
Iterations: 26
Function evaluations: 31
Gradient evaluations: 31
>>> res.x
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> print(res.message)
Optimization terminated successfully.
>>> res.hess_inv
array([[ 0.00749589, 0.01255155, 0.02396251, 0.04750988, 0.09495377], # may vary
[ 0.01255155, 0.02510441, 0.04794055, 0.09502834, 0.18996269],
[ 0.02396251, 0.04794055, 0.09631614, 0.19092151, 0.38165151],
[ 0.04750988, 0.09502834, 0.19092151, 0.38341252, 0.7664427 ],
[ 0.09495377, 0.18996269, 0.38165151, 0.7664427, 1.53713523]])
Next, consider a minimization problem with several constraints (namely
Example 16.4 from [5]_). The objective function is:
>>> fun = lambda x: (x[0] - 1)**2 + (x[1] - 2.5)**2
There are three constraints defined as:
>>> cons = ({'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: x[0] - 2 * x[1] + 2},
... {'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: -x[0] - 2 * x[1] + 6},
... {'type': 'ineq', 'fun': lambda x: -x[0] + 2 * x[1] + 2})
And variables must be positive, hence the following bounds:
>>> bnds = ((0, None), (0, None))
The optimization problem is solved using the SLSQP method as:
>>> res = minimize(fun, (2, 0), method='SLSQP', bounds=bnds,
... constraints=cons)
It should converge to the theoretical solution (1.4 ,1.7).
"""
x0 = np.asarray(x0)
if x0.dtype.kind in np.typecodes["AllInteger"]:
x0 = np.asarray(x0, dtype=float)
if not isinstance(args, tuple):
args = (args, )
if method is None:
# Select automatically
if constraints:
method = 'SLSQP'
elif bounds is not None:
method = 'L-BFGS-B'
else:
method = 'BFGS'
if callable(method):
meth = "_custom"
else:
meth = method.lower()
if options is None:
options = {}
# check if optional parameters are supported by the selected method
# - jac
if meth in ('nelder-mead', 'powell', 'cobyla') and bool(jac):
warn('Method %s does not use gradient information (jac).' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - hess
if meth not in ('newton-cg', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg', 'trust-constr',
'trust-krylov', 'trust-exact',
'_custom') and hess is not None:
warn('Method %s does not use Hessian information (hess).' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# - hessp
if meth not in ('newton-cg', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg', 'trust-constr',
'trust-krylov', '_custom') \
and hessp is not None:
warn(
'Method %s does not use Hessian-vector product '
'information (hessp).' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - constraints or bounds
if (meth in ('nelder-mead', 'powell', 'cg', 'bfgs', 'newton-cg', 'dogleg',
'trust-ncg') and (bounds is not None or np.any(constraints))):
warn('Method %s cannot handle constraints nor bounds.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
if meth in ('l-bfgs-b', 'tnc') and np.any(constraints):
warn('Method %s cannot handle constraints.' % method, RuntimeWarning)
if meth == 'cobyla' and bounds is not None:
warn('Method %s cannot handle bounds.' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - callback
if (meth in ('cobyla', ) and callback is not None):
warn('Method %s does not support callback.' % method, RuntimeWarning)
# - return_all
if (meth in ('l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'cobyla', 'slsqp')
and options.get('return_all', False)):
warn('Method %s does not support the return_all option.' % method,
RuntimeWarning)
# check gradient vector
if meth == 'trust-constr':
if type(jac) is bool:
if jac:
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = '2-point'
elif jac is None:
jac = '2-point'
elif not callable(jac) and jac not in ('2-point', '3-point', 'cs'):
raise ValueError("Unsupported jac definition.")
else:
if jac in ('2-point', '3-point', 'cs'):
if jac in ('3-point', 'cs'):
warn("Only 'trust-constr' method accept %s "
"options for 'jac'. Using '2-point' instead." % jac)
jac = None
elif not callable(jac):
if bool(jac):
fun = MemoizeJac(fun)
jac = fun.derivative
else:
jac = None
# set default tolerances
if tol is not None:
options = dict(options)
if meth == 'nelder-mead':
options.setdefault('xatol', tol)
options.setdefault('fatol', tol)
if meth in ('newton-cg', 'powell', 'tnc'):
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
if meth in ('powell', 'l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'slsqp'):
options.setdefault('ftol', tol)
if meth in ('bfgs', 'cg', 'l-bfgs-b', 'tnc', 'dogleg', 'trust-ncg',
'trust-exact', 'trust-krylov'):
options.setdefault('gtol', tol)
if meth in ('cobyla', '_custom'):
options.setdefault('tol', tol)
if meth == 'trust-constr':
options.setdefault('xtol', tol)
options.setdefault('gtol', tol)
options.setdefault('barrier_tol', tol)
if bounds is not None:
bounds = standardize_bounds(bounds, x0, meth)
if constraints is not None:
constraints = standardize_constraints(constraints, x0, meth)
if meth == '_custom':
return method(fun,
x0,
args=args,
jac=jac,
hess=hess,
hessp=hessp,
bounds=bounds,
constraints=constraints,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'nelder-mead':
return _minimize_neldermead(fun, x0, args, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'powell':
return _minimize_powell(fun, x0, args, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'cg':
return _minimize_cg(fun, x0, args, jac, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'bfgs':
return _minimize_bfgs(fun, x0, args, jac, callback, **options)
elif meth == 'newton-cg':
return _minimize_newtoncg(fun, x0, args, jac, hess, hessp, callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'l-bfgs-b':
return _minimize_lbfgsb(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
bounds,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'tnc':
return _minimize_tnc(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
bounds,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'cobyla':
return _minimize_cobyla(fun, x0, args, constraints, **options)
elif meth == 'slsqp':
return _minimize_slsqp(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
bounds,
constraints,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'trust-constr':
return _minimize_trustregion_constr(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
hess,
hessp,
bounds,
constraints,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'dogleg':
return _minimize_dogleg(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
hess,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'trust-ncg':
return _minimize_trust_ncg(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
hess,
hessp,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'trust-krylov':
return _minimize_trust_krylov(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
hess,
hessp,
callback=callback,
**options)
elif meth == 'trust-exact':
return _minimize_trustregion_exact(fun,
x0,
args,
jac,
hess,
callback=callback,
**options)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown solver %s' % method)
def binned_statistic_dd(sample,
values,
statistic='mean',
bins=10,
range=None,
expand_binnumbers=False,
binned_statistic_result=None):
"""
Compute a multidimensional binned statistic for a set of data.
This is a generalization of a histogramdd function. A histogram divides
the space into bins, and returns the count of the number of points in
each bin. This function allows the computation of the sum, mean, median,
or other statistic of the values within each bin.
Parameters
----------
sample : array_like
Data to histogram passed as a sequence of N arrays of length D, or
as an (N,D) array.
values : (N,) array_like or list of (N,) array_like
The data on which the statistic will be computed. This must be
the same shape as `sample`, or a list of sequences - each with the
same shape as `sample`. If `values` is such a list, the statistic
will be computed on each independently.
statistic : string or callable, optional
The statistic to compute (default is 'mean').
The following statistics are available:
* 'mean' : compute the mean of values for points within each bin.
Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'median' : compute the median of values for points within each
bin. Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'count' : compute the count of points within each bin. This is
identical to an unweighted histogram. `values` array is not
referenced.
* 'sum' : compute the sum of values for points within each bin.
This is identical to a weighted histogram.
* 'std' : compute the standard deviation within each bin. This
is implicitly calculated with ddof=0.
* 'min' : compute the minimum of values for points within each bin.
Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* 'max' : compute the maximum of values for point within each bin.
Empty bins will be represented by NaN.
* function : a user-defined function which takes a 1D array of
values, and outputs a single numerical statistic. This function
will be called on the values in each bin. Empty bins will be
represented by function([]), or NaN if this returns an error.
bins : sequence or positive int, optional
The bin specification must be in one of the following forms:
* A sequence of arrays describing the bin edges along each dimension.
* The number of bins for each dimension (nx, ny, ... = bins).
* The number of bins for all dimensions (nx = ny = ... = bins).
range : sequence, optional
A sequence of lower and upper bin edges to be used if the edges are
not given explicitly in `bins`. Defaults to the minimum and maximum
values along each dimension.
expand_binnumbers : bool, optional
'False' (default): the returned `binnumber` is a shape (N,) array of
linearized bin indices.
'True': the returned `binnumber` is 'unraveled' into a shape (D,N)
ndarray, where each row gives the bin numbers in the corresponding
dimension.
See the `binnumber` returned value, and the `Examples` section of
`binned_statistic_2d`.
binned_statistic_result : binnedStatisticddResult
Result of a previous call to the function in order to reuse bin edges
and bin numbers with new values and/or a different statistic.
To reuse bin numbers, `expand_binnumbers` must have been set to False
(the default)
.. versionadded:: 0.17.0
Returns
-------
statistic : ndarray, shape(nx1, nx2, nx3,...)
The values of the selected statistic in each two-dimensional bin.
bin_edges : list of ndarrays
A list of D arrays describing the (nxi + 1) bin edges for each
dimension.
binnumber : (N,) array of ints or (D,N) ndarray of ints
This assigns to each element of `sample` an integer that represents the
bin in which this observation falls. The representation depends on the
`expand_binnumbers` argument. See `Notes` for details.
See Also
--------
numpy.digitize, numpy.histogramdd, binned_statistic, binned_statistic_2d
Notes
-----
Binedges:
All but the last (righthand-most) bin is half-open in each dimension. In
other words, if `bins` is ``[1, 2, 3, 4]``, then the first bin is
``[1, 2)`` (including 1, but excluding 2) and the second ``[2, 3)``. The
last bin, however, is ``[3, 4]``, which *includes* 4.
`binnumber`:
This returned argument assigns to each element of `sample` an integer that
represents the bin in which it belongs. The representation depends on the
`expand_binnumbers` argument. If 'False' (default): The returned
`binnumber` is a shape (N,) array of linearized indices mapping each
element of `sample` to its corresponding bin (using row-major ordering).
If 'True': The returned `binnumber` is a shape (D,N) ndarray where
each row indicates bin placements for each dimension respectively. In each
dimension, a binnumber of `i` means the corresponding value is between
(bin_edges[D][i-1], bin_edges[D][i]), for each dimension 'D'.
.. versionadded:: 0.11.0
Examples
--------
>>> from scipy import stats
>>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
>>> from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D
Take an array of 600 (x, y) coordinates as an example.
`binned_statistic_dd` can handle arrays of higher dimension `D`. But a plot
of dimension `D+1` is required.
>>> mu = np.array([0., 1.])
>>> sigma = np.array([[1., -0.5],[-0.5, 1.5]])
>>> multinormal = stats.multivariate_normal(mu, sigma)
>>> data = multinormal.rvs(size=600, random_state=235412)
>>> data.shape
(600, 2)
Create bins and count how many arrays fall in each bin:
>>> N = 60
>>> x = np.linspace(-3, 3, N)
>>> y = np.linspace(-3, 4, N)
>>> ret = stats.binned_statistic_dd(data, np.arange(600), bins=[x, y],
... statistic='count')
>>> bincounts = ret.statistic
Set the volume and the location of bars:
>>> dx = x[1] - x[0]
>>> dy = y[1] - y[0]
>>> x, y = np.meshgrid(x[:-1]+dx/2, y[:-1]+dy/2)
>>> z = 0
>>> bincounts = bincounts.ravel()
>>> x = x.ravel()
>>> y = y.ravel()
>>> fig = plt.figure()
>>> ax = fig.add_subplot(111, projection='3d')
>>> with np.errstate(divide='ignore'): # silence random axes3d warning
... ax.bar3d(x, y, z, dx, dy, bincounts)
Reuse bin numbers and bin edges with new values:
>>> ret2 = stats.binned_statistic_dd(data, -np.arange(600),
... binned_statistic_result=ret,
... statistic='mean')
"""
known_stats = ['mean', 'median', 'count', 'sum', 'std', 'min', 'max']
if not callable(statistic) and statistic not in known_stats:
raise ValueError('invalid statistic %r' % (statistic, ))
if not np.isfinite(values).all() or not np.isfinite(sample).all:
raise ValueError('%r or %r contains non-finite values.' % (
sample,
values,
))
# `Ndim` is the number of dimensions (e.g. `2` for `binned_statistic_2d`)
# `Dlen` is the length of elements along each dimension.
# This code is based on np.histogramdd
try:
# `sample` is an ND-array.
Dlen, Ndim = sample.shape
except (AttributeError, ValueError):
# `sample` is a sequence of 1D arrays.
sample = np.atleast_2d(sample).T
Dlen, Ndim = sample.shape
# Store initial shape of `values` to preserve it in the output
values = np.asarray(values)
input_shape = list(values.shape)
# Make sure that `values` is 2D to iterate over rows
values = np.atleast_2d(values)
Vdim, Vlen = values.shape
# Make sure `values` match `sample`
if (statistic != 'count' and Vlen != Dlen):
raise AttributeError('The number of `values` elements must match the '
'length of each `sample` dimension.')
try:
M = len(bins)
if M != Ndim:
raise AttributeError('The dimension of bins must be equal '
'to the dimension of the sample x.')
except TypeError:
bins = Ndim * [bins]
if binned_statistic_result is None:
nbin, edges, dedges = _bin_edges(sample, bins, range)
binnumbers = _bin_numbers(sample, nbin, edges, dedges)
else:
edges = binned_statistic_result.bin_edges
nbin = np.array([len(edges[i]) + 1 for i in xrange(Ndim)])
# +1 for outlier bins
dedges = [np.diff(edges[i]) for i in xrange(Ndim)]
binnumbers = binned_statistic_result.binnumber
result = np.empty([Vdim, nbin.prod()], float)
if statistic == 'mean':
result.fill(np.nan)
flatcount = np.bincount(binnumbers, None)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
flatsum = np.bincount(binnumbers, values[vv])
result[vv, a] = flatsum[a] / flatcount[a]
elif statistic == 'std':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(binnumbers, None)
a = flatcount.nonzero()
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
# NOTE: take std dev by bin, np.std() is 2-pass and stable
result[vv, i] = np.std(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
elif statistic == 'count':
result.fill(0)
flatcount = np.bincount(binnumbers, None)
a = np.arange(len(flatcount))
result[:, a] = flatcount[np.newaxis, :]
elif statistic == 'sum':
result.fill(0)
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
flatsum = np.bincount(binnumbers, values[vv])
a = np.arange(len(flatsum))
result[vv, a] = flatsum
elif statistic == 'median':
result.fill(np.nan)
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
result[vv, i] = np.median(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
elif statistic == 'min':
result.fill(np.nan)
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
result[vv, i] = np.min(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
elif statistic == 'max':
result.fill(np.nan)
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
result[vv, i] = np.max(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
elif callable(statistic):
with np.errstate(invalid='ignore'), suppress_warnings() as sup:
sup.filter(RuntimeWarning)
try:
null = statistic([])
except Exception:
null = np.nan
result.fill(null)
for i in np.unique(binnumbers):
for vv in xrange(Vdim):
result[vv, i] = statistic(values[vv, binnumbers == i])
# Shape into a proper matrix
result = result.reshape(np.append(Vdim, nbin))
# Remove outliers (indices 0 and -1 for each bin-dimension).
core = tuple([slice(None)] + Ndim * [slice(1, -1)])
result = result[core]
# Unravel binnumbers into an ndarray, each row the bins for each dimension
if (expand_binnumbers and Ndim > 1):
binnumbers = np.asarray(np.unravel_index(binnumbers, nbin))
if np.any(result.shape[1:] != nbin - 2):
raise RuntimeError('Internal Shape Error')
# Reshape to have output (`reulst`) match input (`values`) shape
result = result.reshape(input_shape[:-1] + list(nbin - 2))
return BinnedStatisticddResult(result, edges, binnumbers)
def pdist(X, metric='euclidean', *args, **kwargs):
"""
"""
kwargs = _args_to_kwargs_xdist(args, kwargs, metric, "pdist")
X = np.asarray(X, order='c')
# The C code doesn't do striding.
X = _copy_array_if_base_present(X)
s = X.shape
if len(s) != 2:
raise ValueError('A 2-dimensional array must be passed.')
m, n = s
out = kwargs.pop("out", None)
if out is None:
dm = np.empty((m * (m - 1)) // 2, dtype=np.double)
else:
if out.shape != (m * (m - 1) // 2,):
raise ValueError("output array has incorrect shape.")
if not out.flags.c_contiguous:
raise ValueError("Output array must be C-contiguous.")
if out.dtype != np.double:
raise ValueError("Output array must be double type.")
dm = out
# compute blacklist for deprecated kwargs
if(metric in _METRICS['minkowski'].aka or
metric in ['test_minkowski'] or
metric in [minkowski]):
kwargs_blacklist = ["V", "VI"]
elif(metric in _METRICS['seuclidean'].aka or
metric == 'test_seuclidean' or metric == seuclidean):
kwargs_blacklist = ["p", "w", "VI"]
elif(metric in _METRICS['mahalanobis'].aka or
metric == 'test_mahalanobis' or metric == mahalanobis):
kwargs_blacklist = ["p", "w", "V"]
else:
kwargs_blacklist = ["p", "V", "VI"]
_filter_deprecated_kwargs(kwargs, kwargs_blacklist)
if callable(metric):
mstr = getattr(metric, '__name__', 'UnknownCustomMetric')
metric_name = _METRIC_ALIAS.get(mstr, None)
if metric_name is not None:
X, typ, kwargs = _validate_pdist_input(X, m, n,
metric_name,
**kwargs)
k = 0
for i in xrange(0, m - 1):
for j in xrange(i + 1, m):
dm[k] = metric(X[i], X[j], **kwargs)
k = k + 1
elif isinstance(metric, string_types):
mstr = metric.lower()
# NOTE: C-version still does not support weights
if "w" in kwargs and not mstr.startswith("test_"):
if(mstr in _METRICS['seuclidean'].aka or
mstr in _METRICS['mahalanobis'].aka):
raise ValueError("metric %s incompatible with weights" % mstr)
# need to use python version for weighting
kwargs['out'] = out
mstr = "test_%s" % mstr
metric_name = _METRIC_ALIAS.get(mstr, None)
if metric_name is not None:
X, typ, kwargs = _validate_pdist_input(X, m, n,
metric_name,
**kwargs)
# get pdist wrapper
pdist_fn = getattr(_distance_wrap,
"pdist_%s_%s_wrap" % (metric_name, typ))
pdist_fn(X, dm, **kwargs)
return dm
elif mstr in ['old_cosine', 'old_cos']:
warnings.warn('"old_cosine" is deprecated and will be removed in '
'a future version. Use "cosine" instead.',
DeprecationWarning)
X = _convert_to_double(X)
norms = np.einsum('ij,ij->i', X, X, dtype=np.double)
np.sqrt(norms, out=norms)
nV = norms.reshape(m, 1)
# The numerator u * v
nm = np.dot(X, X.T)
# The denom. ||u||*||v||
de = np.dot(nV, nV.T)
dm = 1.0 - (nm / de)
dm[xrange(0, m), xrange(0, m)] = 0.0
dm = squareform(dm)
elif mstr.startswith("test_"):
if mstr in _TEST_METRICS:
dm = pdist(X, _TEST_METRICS[mstr], **kwargs)
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown "Test" Distance Metric: %s' % mstr[5:])
else:
raise ValueError('Unknown Distance Metric: %s' % mstr)
else:
raise TypeError('2nd argument metric must be a string identifier '
'or a function.')
return dm